Development of methods for laser sensing of the Earth from space is of great practical interest. Orbiting laser systems hold the greatest promise in studying parameters of the atmosphere. This paper analyzes methods for spaceborne laser sensing of profiles of aerosol scattering coefficient, which can serve as indicators of natural and anthropogenic catastrophes as well as detectors of light hydrocarbons, whose anomalies indicate oil and gas fields and leakages from oil and gas pipelines. The method of multifrequency elastic scattering is chosen for aerosol measurements, and the method of differential absorption with reflection from the Earth's surface in the IR region is shown to be suitable for the detection of methane.

Detailed studies of optical and thermal properties of solids are necessary for fundamental science as well as for optimization of technologies of laser processing of materials. The essential temperature dependences of the physical parameters of solids strongly influence the laser-matter interaction processes. The advantage of our experimental technique is the possibility to perform simultaneous measurements of reflectivity, absorptivity, transmissivity, heat capacity, heat conductivity, temperature conductivity of solids in a broad range of investigated temperatures (up to 2500°C) with high temporal resolution (0.5 ms). Besides, the developed method allows to estimate values of heat of phase transitions and to reveal the influence of ambient atmosphere on the physical properties of samples undergoing noticeable structural and chemical modifications during laser heating. A possibility to record both the optical and thermal properties and temperature dependences of metals, ceramics, CVD (chemical vapor deposition) diamond films within a single experiment (for a few seconds) allows to apply this technique for studying and selecting novel materials with unknown properties.

Modern aspects of adaptive optics are considered. Atmospheric turbulence induces phase distortions of an optical wave which transform into amplitude distortions in the wave cross sections. On a long path intensity fluctuations become so strong that points appear with zero intensity. In such point wave-front distortions are of a spiral structure. Singularity of this type are called wave-front dislocations. Problems of adaptive system development intended for compensation of turbulent distortions are discussed frequently. But still is not clear how the principal characteristics of an adaptive system such a minimum size of element and allowed temporal lag of correction are influenced by intensity fluctuations. Some problems, connected with the development of ground-based adaptive telescope, particularly, with equipping it with an additional optical system for laser guide star formation, are treated in the paper.

We consider the solution of the phase problem in optics as applied to signals varying in time, in particular, to ultra-short signals. In order to get information about changing the amplitude and phase of optical signal in time, the modulationspectral method is used. We register the intensity distributions directly for the signal spectrum, and for the spectrum of the signal additionally modulated. The modulation provides a visualization of the phase information. The intensity distributions obtained allow one to calculate the structure of the signal under consideration. We consider three variants of the signal analysis. The first one is immediate analysis of the signal whose characteristics vary in time. The second variant deals with varying in time optical characteristics of the object (medium) analyzed by means of probing with radiation of known structure and measuring the parameters of the radiation passed through the object (medium). The third variant consists in simultaneous determination and analysis of structures of the signal (varying in time) and of the transfer function which describes the influence ofthe medium, object or optical system on the propagating signal.

Estimations are carried out on creation possibilities of all solid state laser sources capable significantly or fully to solve the problem of designing a universal Aerosol-Gas Lidar System. The best existing solid state Nd:YAG and Ho2+ :ILF lasers supplied with frequency converters to middle JR are considered. Well known GaSe crystals with modernized properties by indoping and annealed ZnGeP2, little known HgGa2S4 and LiInS2, mixed AgGaIn(I-X)Se2, and new mixed AgXGaXGe(1-X)S4 and Hg(1-X)CdXGa2S4 nonlinear crystals are proposed as basic elements of these frequency converters. Optical properties and potential of these crystals are investigated and presented in details. The investigation results show that development of super wide band UV to FIR laser source can make it possible to carry out with efficiencies of one-two to several tens percent in several ways, using both the proposed and the traditional KTP, KTA, and BBO frequency converters.

We present a novel technique for estimation of temperature dependence of optical constants from ellipsometric measurements. We suggest making measurements during short-time impulse heating using high-speed single-wavelength ellipsometer. In this way we can eliminate or reduce significantly the influence of thermal oxidation or surface decomposition on measured results. For temperature monitoring we have used a ZnTe/GaAs heterostructure with high sensitivity of ellipsometric parameters to the temperature. Our measurements show impulse-to-pulse reproducibility of the temperature well within ±5°C Using this technique we determined the temperature dependence of optical constants for mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) compounds from room temperature up to 250°C.

The state-of-the-art in definition of the amplitude and phase of signals as applied to analysis of fringe patterns like interferogram is discussed. The problem of both theoretical and practical significance, namely, the conditions for existence of two-band spectrum of real signals, are considered. Some constructive results are presented.

Mechanisms of the optical limiting effect in the fullerene-doped ?-conjugated organic systems based on polyimide and 2-cyclooctylamino-5-nitropyridine have been studied. Reverse saturable absorption, two-photon absorption, and charge transfer complex formation have been established to be responsible for the limitation of the laser radiation over visible spectral range. The absorption cross-section of the excited state has been determined for complexes based on both systems.

The paper deals with current problems of measuring the parameters of the Earth rotation, i.e. location of the Earth in space. Results of determination of the Earth rotation parameters by optical techniques, satellite laser ranging and GLONASS/GPS satellite navigation systems are presented. Design of the nano- and picosecond emitters for laser ranging devices of 2nd and 3rd generation and representation of tracking results are described in detail.

Atmospheric gaseous molecules concentration measurements can be made with lidar sensing for monitoring the toxic pollutants in urban and industrial regions. Laboratory lidar studies and lidar equation simulations allowed to obtain iodine molecules fluorescence differential cross section and iodine molecules absorption cross section. These results confirm the possibility of lidar measurements of the molecular iodine concentration at low pressure and the treatment of these measuring results gave the iodine molecules parameters.

Generalization of small angle modification method of spherical harmonics in a case of a point monodirectional (PM) light source in an infinite turbid medium with an anisotropic scattering is carried out. Within the framework of the deduced generalization, a solution of the vector radiation transfer equation for an unpolarized PM-radiant is obtained. The expressions featuring the state of polarization of scattered light are given in a form convenient for use in engineering practice. The obtained expressions are analyzed and it is shown, that the minimum of polarization coincides with the direction of sighting on the maximum of radiance, which corresponds to the Umov law.

Maximum probable estimates for optical signals in the presence of a shot noise are obtained. For a Gaussian video impulse explicit expressions for the estimation of all three parameters (amplitude, duration and arrival time) are found. For LDV - system signals, boundaries of Rao-Cramers, which permit one to estimate the greatest possible measurement errors of all unknowns of the parameters of a signal (amplitude, Doppler frequency, and arrival time of impulse), are obtained.

The second harmonic generation effect (SHG) has been used for an express, local, non-destructive control of the quantitative and qualitative crystalline characteristics of materials. The characteristics and possibilities of an automated laser monitoring system of crystalline parameters of semiconductor materials are presented. The system allows to determine orientation of crystallographic axes within several minutes. The error of measurements is about 0.1° in local surface area (with a diameter ? 100 microns, depth 0,1 ÷ 1,0 microns). It is possible to detect the presence of local strains (stresses), to create cards of crystal quality of a sample surface and optical quality of the volume of tested materials (obtaining time is about 15 mm.) with the help of this system.

A method of measuring distances founded on the optical location of remote objects with the use of ultra-short pulses (USP) of mode-locked lasers is offered. The basic time interval is proportional to the motion time of a sounding USP along the trajectory and is integer quantity proportional to the round-trip time of both laser-counter of a measured interval and of mode-locked laser of sounding USP. Its measuring will be carried out by counting the relevant USP of the CW stabilized on their round-trip time mode-locked laser. Being synchronized with this laser at the moment of the probing USP radiation and being accepted by the photodetector, it has some jitter with the USP of the laser-counter proximate on time, which is detected additionally with the purpose of increasing of the measuring precision. As the laser of a sounding pulse, a pulsing solid-state laser with short-term resonant modulation of losses (STRML-laser) and earlier investigated is proposed. Its properties from the viewpoint of its external dirigibility by electric pulses are described.

The effect of a dynamic thermal lens on the radiation divergence of a high-energy free running mode neodymium glass laser with an unstable oscillator is presented. The effect of active rod thermal distortions on the temporal changes of output laser radiation are discussed. The dynamics of a thermal lens in neodymium glass GLS-6 of Ø45x300 mm is investigated.

We report the results of studying the effect of the resonant light pressure force on the amplitude and frequency properties of the nonlinear susceptibility and well known absorption resonance dip occurring in optical saturation spectroscopy of two level atomic gas. On the basis of numerical solutions of the Liouville and Fokker-Plank equations the behaviour pattern of the velocity distribution function of a two-level atomic gas in relation to the saturation intensity and time of interaction with a strong resonant optical field was obtained. Time course of the velocity distribution function due to the action of spontaneous light pressure force leads to modification of the nonlinear susceptibility, absorption saturation resonant line form and to change of frequency dip relative to the atomic resonant frequency transition. The represented numerical modeling results explained qualitatively a number ofexperimental facts, that could not be explained before.

A short description of the largest radio heliograph in the word ? The Siberian Solar Radio Telescope (SSRT) is Presented. The modernization trends of the SSRT, whose purpose is to enlarge the Telescope capacities, including possibility to register three-dimensional structure and dynamics of active regions and Solar flares, are discussed. The main principles of building of a new radiation detector of the SSRT ? laser spectrum analyzer, based on acousto-optical cell were considered. It justifies the advisability of using laser triangulation range finder, performed on the diffraction optics elements, which allows to form laser beams with small angle of beam for improvement accuracy enhancement of the Radio Telescope antenna adjustment.

The principles of precision measurement of frequency intervals in optical range with the help of femtosecond lasers are described. An experimental scheme of femtosecond optical clock is described. The characteristics of the basic elements and units of the setup are presented. The results of a broadened spectrum researches with the help of tapered fibers are reported.

We present the design of several types of extended-cavity lasers (ECL) based on the Littman1 configuration and an arrangement for an external stabilizating scheme employing Doppler-free saturation spectroscopy in the molecular iodine. The ECLs followed the requirements of metrological applications where the stress has been put to mechanical stability, thermal control, narrow linewidth and a mode-hop free tuning range. We developed the technique of antireflection coatings of the laser diodes front facets which proved to be a crucial step towards the internal cavity suppression and propper operation of the ECL. To control the laser optical frequency an electronics consisting of a precise thermal control and a current source with a protective circuitry was designed.

At present the ballistic method of measuring the absolute value of gravitational acceleration g is considered to be the most accurate and Promising.1-4 The value ofg is calculated from the results of measuring the travel and time of free-fall of a test mass. The travel is measured using a laser interferometer, with the wavelength of laser radiation stabilized to an atomic reference point in the spectrum of its radiation being the measure of travel. Time intervals are measured in signals of precision, for example, rubidium frequency standard.

Experimental and theoretical investigations of the Ti:S laser spectrum broadened in tapered fiber are presented. Dependence of broadened spectrum envelope on the waist diameter and coupled laser power was studied.

A refractometric complex based on dynamic laser goniometer including in its structure a modernized State primary standard of refractive index unit is considered.

The possibility of application of nonlinear laser polarization spectroscopy for measuring the steady-state population characteristics in degenerated atomic systems with metastable lower state during optical pumping in intense laser fields is considered. It is shown that a combination of polarization spectroscopy of probe field and the Faraday effect allows to measure directly the population differences for "enriched " and "depleted" Zeeman's sub-levels during the process of optical pumping as well as for optically coupled sub-levels of lower and upper states of the transition. The experimental results for the transitions 1s5?2p2 (J=2?J=1) and 1s5?2p4 (J=2?J=2) Ne20 and their comparison are presented.

Precise measurements of frequency stability of laser frequency standards require very special instrumentation: precision high-speed digital frequency meter with zero 'dead time'. New hardware and software instrumentation has been designed and successfully tested on highest accuracy laser heterodyne systems. Original methods of measuring and data processing allow estimation of frequency stability with the accuracy of 1 5-th order. This instrumentation was used in measurements of frequency stability of He-Ne/CH4 laser during a period of the time of 0.005s with a resolution better than 1Hz. With hardware based on Pentium-! ! ! the possibility of real-time counting and plotting in several windows frequency vs time, Allen variance vs period and others useful dependences are demonstrated and used. The data throughput with simultaneous real-time renewal of statistics is 1000 samples per second.

A laser spectrometer scheme on the basis of an active interferometer containing saturated absorbing and amplifying media have been proposed. The form of nonlinear resonances in methane at a wavelength of 3.39 im was investigated with a resolution of about 12 kHz. The resonance amplitude in the active interferometer can exceed the amplitude in a similar passive system by one order of magnitude.

A new depth-from-defocus type co-axial 3-D sensor is proposed that permits shade-free absolute 3-D shape measurement from the contrast information of a frequency-multiplexed single fringe pattern. The Fourier transform method is used for spatial frequency demultiplexing and extracting the fringe contrast. Experimental results are presented that demonstrate the validity of the principle.

The technical characteristics, advantages and applications of an automated optoelectronic measuring systems for inspection of complex 3-dimensional objects (gas-turbine engine (GTE) elements) designed by "OPTEL" company, State Aviation Technical University of Ufa are presented in this paper. The measuring apparatus can be applied in research and in industry. Its main advantages are non-destructive inspection and high speed of scanning.

A fast measurement of the main characteristically properties of gears is very important for the automo tive industry and also for the machine tool industry, especially in conformity with the international standard ISO9000X. Based on a special projected fringes method, a test equipment together with new software tools has been developed to measure length and angles at gear tooth. The test equipment, the new software tool and the applications will be discussed in the presentation.

In Laser Material Processing, surfaces have to be measured at low apertures within the rough environment generated by the production process. As it is hardly possible to measure the material wear through the plasma at the working zone (at ternperatures above 3000 K), common sensors would have a quite poor performance. The ablation sensor presented in this paper solves that problem by utilising just the plasma spot emitting a signal from which we evaluate the distance between sensor and work piece. The specific features of this sensor are: the measurement is not distorted by coherent noise and is insensitive against the (strongly varying) spot size and shape. Hence, the sensor displays extreme accuracy, even with low aperture and in presence of strong turbulence. The achievable measurement on-line uncertainty within the ablation process is ? = 3 tm using a CO2-Laser. - A demand for even finer structures in laser ablation leads to a change from the Lasercaving process (using a CO2-laser) to an ablation by sublimation (using a Nd:YAG laser). The intention is to decrease the thickness of each ablated layer, and thus, generating finer structures. In order to keep the ablation rates at an economically interesting value, the speed between laser and work piece surface has to be increased. This new ablation process tightens the requirements for the sensor performance, even more. In the paper we will explain the basic ideas of the sensor as well as the technology of implementation and a couple of successful applications.

Ensuring a high reliability of fuel assemblies of nuclear reactors makes strict demands on geometric parameters of grid spacers. They determine the preset position of the fuel element beam in the transversal and longitudinal directions of fuel assembly and the required tension in the cell — fuel element junction, which is highly important for excluding of fuel element corrosion and for maintenance of normal thermal regime of this assembly. A laser measuring machine (LMM) using a three-channel measuring head based on multipoint structured illumination and scanning X-Y table, for 1 00% noncontact 3D inspection of grid spacers geometric parameters of Russian nuclear reactor VVER- 1000, has been developed and produced at TDI STE. The LMM structure, operation and software are described and the results of its industrial testing are presented and discussed. LMM makes it possible to measure for half an hour (with errors less than 18 ?m) the following grid spacer geometric parameters: diameters of its cells and of guiding channels, the distances between cells centers and shifts of cell centers relative to design drawing. In addition, LMM also measures grid spacer overall dimensions "for spanner".

The measurement of surface profiles by use of the interference pattern of partially coherent light is described. A method based on the modulation the optical path lengths of the beams in the reference arm of an interferometer has been proposed for recording differential interferograms. A profilometer implementing this approach has been developed. Measuring results on the profiles of metal surfaces are provided. As an extension of this technique, a new fast method for measuring the depth of a surface profile has been proposed. The method relies on the polyzonal interference patterns of the partially coherent light. Experimental verification has been carried out, the results are provided.

The main problem of the 3D inspection in optical microscopy in the depth scanning, an operation, which is inevitable for point-like and some other objects. Meanwhile for the class of straight-line objects this problem can be solved, if for supporting waves we take conical wavefronts instead of spherical ones. In this case we must use an imaging lens, which has a kink in its generating line. Thus we get natural orientation in space, and a complete elimination of the depth scanning. Due to this productivity of the 3D inspection increases at least by 100-200 times. By means of such radically new imaging lens with kink we can perform selective observation of straight-line objects in space without any depth scanning, through the information about depth coordinate, and the dip angle of this object is not lost. The properties of conical waves will be explained. A microscope, which has been designed for selective observation of "horizontal" straight-line objects oriented approximately perpendicular to the optical axis of this microscope, will be described. For selective observation of "vertical" straight-line objects oriented approximately parallel to the optical axis, another class of microscope has been constructed. We describe also the principle of new optical microscope which enables us to obtain the image of a straight-line object inclined at the angle of ~45° with respect to the optical axis without any depth scanning. The first test model of this optical microscope, in which we use coherent illumination, two traditional imaging lenses and an image transformer is described. The experimental results are presented.

The review on the contact and noncontact scanning probe techniques for nanoscale operations and control are given in this article. The problems of development of these tools are discussed. The examples of surface images for different materials up to the atomic resolution are presented.

At the Institute of Process Measurement and Sensor Technology of the TU Ilmenau, a scanning force microscope (measuring range 15 ?m x 75 tm x 15 ?m) having a laser-interferometric 3D-nanomeasuring system free from Abbe errors has been developed in cooperation with the PTB Braunschweig. The extended measuring uncertainty (K =2) is only 0.2 nm and was obtained with a structure standard. To achieve a considerable extension of the measuring range up to 25 mmx 25 mm x 5 mm, a nanopositioning and —measuring machine was developed. The resolution of the measuring axes is 1.24 nm. The laser-interferometric measurement is free from Abbe errors of 1St order in all measuring axes. The deviations of the guides used are compensated by means of a precision mirror corner.

The current state of the art and application of technology of molecular beam epitaxy, direct bonding of semiconductor wafers, electron beam lithography and probe nanolithography are reviewed on the base of results of research work carried out at the Institute of Semiconductor Physics (Novosibirsk).

X-ray interferometry makes important contributions in several fields, such as the improvement of a set of self-consistent fundamental physical constants, the linking between macroscopic and microscopic length scales, the metrology of atomicscale displacements, and the x-ray topography and tomography. This paper reviews x-ray interferomery by describing the principles of operation and the most important features of combined x-ray and optical interferometry, with emphasis on the scientific and technological challenges still deserving particular attention.

This paper is devoted to consideration of current development of linear measurement metrology in nanometer range — nanometrology, where the problems of measurement instruments in this range are given. On the basis of analysis of possibilities of different methods and means of nanometrology, and also technology of creation and constructions of different measures of small dimensions, recommendations are given to provide the best resolution, stability and measurement error in nanometer range. Results of experimental investigation of etalon measurement system on the basis of scanning probe microscope and laser interferometer-photometer for 3D measurements of linear dimensions with atomic resolution in the real time scale are given. The concept of nanometer metrology is developed.

A new one dimensional laser interferometric comparator has been developed for the calibration of the fine linear encorders and scales up to 1600mm. In the comparator, the interferometer is fully arranged in vacuum and the calibration objects are mounted under atmospheric conditions. The Abbe's principle in the alignment of workpiece with the measuring beam is satisfied in the structure of a long measuring range. A traveling slide table, on which the calibration objects are mounted, is supported on guide rails by the air bearings and is driven through a recirculating ballscrew. The exhaust of the air bearings is guided to the exterior of the booth in which the comparator is placed. The travel of the table is measured by a reference interferometer with a beam path in vacuum shielded by an evacuated metal bellow, so that the effect of refractive index is eliminated. The laser beam is led by a polarization plane maintaining glass fiber from a self-designed stabilized He- Ne laser, which is placed in an adjacency room, to the beam inlet of the main unit. The measurement system can input the interferometer signal by the encorder signal or the scale signal, and input the encorder or scale data by the interferometer signal. The system resolution is approximately O.8nm and maximum traveling measurement speed is 20mm/s at continuous measurement. The uncertainly (K=2) of measurement is approximately 3Onm in linear encorders of 500mm length and, approximately 4Onm in scales of 500mm, although it depends on the length and the characteristics of encorders and scales. It is successful such a high accuracy that the uncertainty of measurement is smaller than 4Onm in encorders of im length.

We present three methods of scale-linearity verification for high-resolution laser interferometers. Methods are scoped to Michelson type interferometer where detection technique with signals in quadrature supported by a single-frequency He—Ne laser is used. Theory, experimental implementation, and measured results of each method are summarized. A short overview of principle of quadrature detection system and digital correction of the scale non-linearity is included also. The contribution highlights main difficulties arisen from each presented method.

A phase encoding electronics capable of compensating the nonlinearity in a heterodyne laser interferometer is described. The system consists of the phase demodulating electronics and the nonlinearity compensating electronics. For phase demodulation, the device uses the phase-quadrature mixing technique. And, for nonlinearity compensation, the offsets, the amplitudes and the phase of two output signals from demodulator are adjusted electrically so that their Lissajous figure can be a circle. As a result, the correct phase can be obtained. The brief analysis of nonlinearity in heterodyne interferometer and the design of the phase encoding electronics are presented. The test was performed in a Michelson-type interferometer using a transverse Zeeman stabilized He-Ne laser. The experiment demonstrates that this method can encode the phase of the heterodyne interferometer with sub-nanometer accuracy.

There are many systems for measuring precise position of stages or probes. Three-dimensional coordinate measuring machine is an example. These machines, however, do not measure orientation of the stage. In recent years, positioning stages using parallel mechanisms have been developed. To obtain the information of their geometrical motions, we have to measure the orientation in addition to position. In this paper, we shall propose an interferometric system for measuring the position and orientation of such a positioning stage. In this system multiple retro-reflectors such as corner cubes are fixed on the moving stage and multiple interferometers are formed with the corner cubes as reflectors. Light beams are incident on the corner cubes from different incident directions. We have two ways to measure the positions of the corner cubes with interferometers. One is "fringe counting method", measuring the moving distance of the corner cubes in several directions directly, and calculating the position and orientation of the stage from the moving distances. The other is "multi-directional coincidence method", utilizing multiple image sensors to detect the interferograms in several directions. From the interferograms, we obtain fractional fringe orders by image processing, and estimate the integer fringe orders, which conform to the fractional orders for all the interferograms. The simulation results in 2-dimension (2-D) showed that an error within 0. 1 tm in translation and 0.01 degree in rotation are achieved in the measuring ranges of several millimeters with the fringe counting method. Simulation for one-dimensional multi-directional coincidence method showed the potentiality ofthe method.

A comparative analysis of moving meters schemes of an acoustic-optical type is carried out. Reference scales formed by surface acoustic waves and diffraction gratings are used in these schemes. The system SAW-DG is probed by a laser beam. The measurement of movement is effected by change of the phase of a signal at SAW frequency in the optoelectronic channel. Repeatability, resolving power, exactitude, range of measurements are analyzed. The resolving power better than 0,05 microns can be reached using SAW wave-length in a range of 30 up to 100 microns.

The main principles of creation of a laser generator of images for a microrelief synthesis of diffractive optical elements on axisymmetric 3-D surfaces are discussed. Peculiarities of creation of a autofocusing system, which is made in the form of a 2-circuit regulation system with the function of automatic search, capture and retention of surface within a wide dynamic range, are analysed. Experimental results of the recording of hybrid (diffraction/refraction) element with a diameter 22 mm and equidistant 10 ?m periodical structure on the spherical surfaces with a radius equal to 70 mm are shown.

The principles and the status of a system for assurance of measurement uniformity in laserometry are outlined and the functions of VNIIOPI as the National Scientific Metrology Center responsible for assurance of measurement uniformity are described. The tasks of laserometry as applied to the needs of economics have been stated. The basic trends in laserometry development for the next decade have been designated. It has been shown that first of all it is necessary to master: ultraviolet and x-rays ranges of the spectrum; ranges of ultra-low (less than 1 x 10-10) intensity values and super-high (more than 105 ) power and energy values; nanow-aperture (micrometers) and broad-aperture (tens of centimeters and greater) laser beams; ranges of ultra-short (subpico- and femtosecond) laser radiation pulses, especially in Uv and x-rays ranges of the spectrum.

This paper presents an algorithm and results of measurements of beam quality (M2). The algorithm is based on measurements performed by a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWS). The SHWS was designed to investigate the phase distortions of optical fields. Various wavefront parameters, such as Zernike coefficients of phase expansion, Peak-to-Valley, root-mean-square and intensity distribution, are obtained by using the SHWS. Some results of wavefront measurements are presented in this paper. The sensor developed can be widely used not only in scientific investigations and diagnostics, but also in adaptive optical systems to compensate for the phase aberrations.

The paper deals with the problem of the laser metrology in connection with the international project "CHOCLAB" (Characterization of Optical Components and Laser Beams). The paper gives the short description of the project, explains the necessity of modernization of the standards, concerning lasers, laser radiation and optics. Also a short description of the current status of the work in the world and in Russia is given.

Modification of the Moving Slit Method is described that permit the evaluation of the laser beam parameters in terms of second moments of the energy (power) distribution.

Phase-locked frequency control of two identical lasers is used in laser heterodyne systems in order to decrease the frequency with preservation of its absolute stability. It is most important to provide the highest dynamic accuracy. This is achievable with regulators providing ?60dB/dec slope of bode diagram or even a sharper one. As a rule, this value is – 40dB/dec but in absolute frequency measuring researches it is not enough. Another important problem is dividing two modes of transient process in accordance with the two used modulators. A new method for this goal is given with necessary equations and design procedures. The essence of the method is use of two piezoelectric modulators with significantly different bode diagrams in two servo loops. The fast loop is made with a wide bandpass. As a result, the slope of bode diagram of the fast loop is ?20dB/dec because of the contribution of the contribution of the integrator that is given form the transform of the phase value into frequency value. The slope of the loop is made no less than ?40dB/dec, so the resulting slope is much steeper than the slope of the fast loop. Its minimum value is ?60dB/dec. So the transient function of the fast loop is W1=b(1+Tb)-1, and the transient function of the slow loop is W2=Kn(1+GKTp)n, whereK2>>b>>G2>>G>>1 n?[2,3,4…]. The method has been successfully tested in several laser setups. The restrictions of the method are discussed.

This paper presents experimental results obtained by a deposition double-layer system made by means of the electron-beam vacuum evaporation technique. We used short-wavelength 633 -635 nm laser diodes. The wavelengths of these devices are close to the wavelengths of traditional He-Ne lasers. We use them in an extended-cavity laser design for metrological purposes. The resulting reflectivities were evaluated by measuring a testing plate of GaAs and by measuring the "modulation depth" of the coated diode emission spectra. Our best results were obtained for reflectivities well below 10-4 and repeatability ofthe deposition process in a range not exceeding 2x10-4.

Software of control system for mobile measurement standard of laser radiation average power unit (MMSAP): construction principle, description of components.

Nowadays it is very important to know such beam parameters as beam diameter, divergence angle, beam propagation factor M2. It is very useful for many laser applications as well during experimentation. Thus we made an appropriate device, which consists of hardware and software. It allows one to measure the main parameters of a laser beam. The algorithm of measurements is based on double and multiple beam diameter measurements. The beam diameter is defined as a second moment of the intensity distribution function of the beam at some cross-section. The measurements and calculations are made according to the International Standard 1501 1 146 'Test methods for laser beam parameters: Beam widths, divergence angle and beam propagation factor". The software includes options for evaluation of short-term and long-term power (or intensity) instability. It is also possible to do Gaussian or Flat-top fit to the beam intensity that is used to evaluate how close the beam is to TEM00 mode or to the uniform beam.

In this paper, a method of increasing the accuracy and sensitivity of optical radiation average power measurements with the aid of a black body (BB) is proposed and studied experimentally. The essence of the method consists in matched Wiener filtration of the results of measuring the kinetics of BB heating up with the aid of the discrete Fourier transform and the method of least squares when the Fourier spectra of the process under study are compared with a model spectrum. The Fourier spectrum of BB heating up at high levels of optical radiation power (when the BB temperature drift can be neglected) is used as the model one. A decrease in the total uncertainty by a factor of 3 to 5 has been attained at low levels of optical radiation power.

In this paper, the structure and the principle of operation of working measurement standards are considered and the relations for calculating their total uncertainty are determined.

The stages of development of metrological assurance of laser safety in Russia are described. The basic normative documents related to laser safety and technical characteristics the laser dosimeters used now are adduced.

The results of experimental metrological investigations of calorimetric cavity-type measuring transducers of short-pulse laser radiation energy used in secondary and working measurement standards as well as in high-precision measuring means are presented. The sources of transducer basic uncertainty's components have been analyzed and the values of these components have been evaluated; the averaged value of transducer basic uncertainty has been obtained.

Fiber optical sensor systems are finding increasingly applications due to their specific properties such as immunity against electro magnetic radiation, electrically isolating properties, small size and weight or applicability under adverse environmental conditions. Many physical effects can be used for a fiber optical sensor operation. However, in order to achieve acceptable accuracy, influences of component properties, transmission lengths and cross sensitivity to other parameters have to be minimised. Spectrally encoding principles allow to avoid many of such effects and are therefore well suited for practical applications. An overview of such physical principles will be presented and examples of sensor systems will be given.

The questions of metrological assurance for measurement of dynamic parameters of optical pulses whose temporal parameters lie in the inertia region of measuring means and their main components have been considered. The questions of an approach to estimation of measuring means metrological characteristics and of restoring a shape of the optical pulses to be measured have been discussed.

White light interferometry or coherence radar is a well known and established measurement technique for years. But especially the field of production technology and medical technology need measurement systems with continuously increasing performance. This paper demonstrates, how the use of special optical components for higher measurement frequencies and the miniaturizing ofthe sensor tip can enlarge the application fields for this system. First, the fundamental aspects of white light interferometry are presented and lead to the new concept of a distance measurement system. It is shown how the inset of a special stepped mirror in the detection interferometer increases the measurement frequency and how the sensor is miniaturized using a Fabry-Perot interferometer.

A new area of fiber-optic Sagnac interferometer application is presented and discussed. The fiber-optic sensor described in the paper, in well-known classic fiber-optic gyro configuration, has been designed for a detection of the rotational seismic events. The basic system optimisation for a detection rotation only without conversion for angular changes distinguishes this system from the gyro application. On the other side, the detection of absolute rotation can give an advantage for this system in compare to other rotational seismometers, which calculate rotational events in indirect ways. The comparison of data from the described fiber-optic rotation seismometer and two antiparallel pendulum seismometers are also presented.

Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) as integrated spectral fiber reflection filters have found many applications in the fields of communication and sensing. Different techniques such as the phase mask method or the interferometric method are used for recording of such FBGs with UV-light. Interferometric recording during the fiber drawing process allows the realization of complex FBG-anays in a simple way. Such FBG-arrays are especially interesting for (quasi-) distributed fiber optical sensing systems allowing measurement in parallel at different locations. We will report about improvements in dynamic recording (single pulse recording) of such FBG-arrays achieving high reflection intensities in the range of 10%. This has been achieved by optimised doping and processing of the fiber. Applications of such FBGs for measuring parameters like temperature and strain will be discussed including a specific spectral measuring system based on a grating polychromator for multiplexed measurements.

Experience of VNIIOFI, a leading research institute of Gosstandart of Russia, is used as a basis for the discussion of the state of the art of metrological support of measurements in fiber-optic systems for information transmission. Possible approaches to solutions of problems in this area are considered. The basic methods and hardware currently available in Russia are described. Future development is discussed.

Uv system of high output power and large coherence length operating at 244 and 257nm is described. Single-frequency argon laser output is frequency-doubled by BBO crystal placed in external resonant cavity. Applications of the system for fiber grating fabrication are discussed. System for characterization of fiber gratings based on the optical spectrum analyzer is described. Technique of temperature tuning of FBGs forming a cavity of a fiber Raman laser is applied that provides high sensitivity of Raman laser output power and spectra to a temperature difference of the cavity FBGs. Possible applications of such scheme in fiber sensing are discussed.

Three-dimensional beam propagation method was used to model waveguide sensor, based on surface plasmon resonance. Input mode efficiently is coupled to operating waveguide mode. The resonance conditions are determined from modal analysis. A direct detection of index variation of an order of 10-5 from intensity measurements is possible.

In the paper theoretical and experimental investigations of a possibility the full polarization parameters measurement by the in-line fiber-optic devices are described. The discussed systems based on the polarimeter as well as Sagnac interferometer configuration. The detection of the polarisation state as well as degree of the polarisation in real time by the devices containing standard single-mode fiber and an appropriate applied modulation technique is a new systems property. The comparison of described systems, based on experimental results, is also presented in the paper.

At present rapidly developing fiber-optical transmission systems (FOTS) are progressively more used which is reflected in the development of their metrological support. One of the main characteristics of FOTS is the average power of optical radiation propagating in an optical fiber. The solution of the problem of uniformity measurements of this parameter is one of the main metrological problems in FOTS. Its solution is associated with the development of secondary and standard means of measurements of the average power of radiation, and also of the calibration chain which determines the methods and means of calibration of instruments. Now for this purpose photoelectric, pyroelectric and calorimetric receivers are widely used, and laser semiconductor sources of optical radiation and optical attenuators are applied. A new standard receiver based on high-precision calorimeter, and a new calibration chain for measurements of the average power of optical radiation for FOTS are described.

Laser range finders are now rather developed with a wide application field concerning indoor robotic, non destructive testing, inspection and security control or automotive intelligent cruise control. Interferometry, self-mixing, fringe pattern projection, triangulation and flight time measurement methods are the most important methods. Flight time based methods require a modulation of the optical beam, which can be made by pulse, sine wave or chirp signal or even pseudo random code signal. The aim of this paper is to present rather simple techniques leading to low cost systems. Pulse modulation is typically interesting in case of wide range measurement, but is also developed for medium range. The main interest of the phase-shift measurement method is the conversion of a short time of flight interval into a wider interval through the phase of the signal. That is obtained either by the heterodyne process which keeps the phase shift constant or by the intermediate frequency sampling technique. This phase-shift method is dedicated to medium or short range. Modulating signal with a wider spectrum should lead to more powerful system. In this way the FMCW-like method, based on a chirped frequency signal, is a new technique developed as for radar leading also to rather simple systems. Nevertheless the implementation of the method present some problems. With more complex modulating signals the detection needs important signal processing developments, but it should be possible to use the technology already developed for telecommunication systems or for GPS by the way ofpseudo-random codes. Finally it is possible to move towards smart systems by combining several modulating signals and introducing digital control in the system.

A high-sensitive method for detection and determination of the geometrical parameters of round hole sidebar defects, based on solution of inverse problem of diffraction of laser radiation on the given hole is considered. The principle of solution is analysis of the general and fine structure of diffraction patterns by means of geometrical theory of diffraction.

The "OPTEL" Co., Ltd of Ufa State Aviation Technical University designs and produces new high-speed laser computeraided optoelectronic measuring systems. The non-contact "OPTEL" systems allow to measure geometric dimensions, shape, coordinates, orientations, angles, profiles of sections, thickness, velocities, temperatures, etc. during technological processes with high precision. The OPTEL " systems are used in scientific researches and various fields of industry: aircraft enginering, machinebuilding industry, metallurgy, tube rolling, etc., in measuring operations and automation of technological process to increase a suitable product output and quality. The images are scanned in an integrated CMOS array. The combination of electronic and software-supported processing of the information signals guarantees a high accuracy and efficiency of non-contact measurements and performance reliability in plant conditions. Object material can be of various composition (metals, polymers, etc.) and state (solid, soft, fragile, cold, hot). The main advantages of the apparatus are non-contact operations, high precision and measuring speed, multi -purpose and wide range of applications, small overall dimensions and low weight.

Two laser interferometric methods with a focused laser probing beam for thickness measurements of transparent films and layers are discussed. In both methods the exact focusing ofprobing beam on the objects surfaces permits one to determine the parameters of random inhomogeneous objects, such as coatings on the rough surfaces. One is the so-called focused oblique laser beam (FOLB) method. In this method at illumination by a focused oblique laser beam of a transparent layer with rough rear surface the reflected field performs superposition of beams with smooth and speckle-modulated wave fronts. A quasiregular interference pattern in the reflected field is observed when the waist of the focused laser beam overlap a rough rear surface of the layer being tested. Knowing the angular period of the observed interference fringes and refractive index of layer medium one can determine the local geometrical thickness of the layer. The latter method is based on the so-called Laser Wave Front Matching Interferometer (LWFMI), which is constructed under scheme of Michelson interferometer with focusing microobjectives in the interferometer branches (Linnik scheme) and a wide integrating detector aperture in the common exit branch. In the envelope of a interference LWFMI signal as a function of object displacement relative to the focal point of an interferometer focusing objective, peaks are observed when the probing beam is focused on the front and rear surfaces of the layer. The distance between the interference signal peaks is proportional to the geometrical thickness of the layer and can be measured by the technique of interference fringe counting. As in the first method, geometrical thickness can be obtained, if the refractive index of the layer medium is known. The results of geometrical thickness measurements of some objects by both methods are compared and discussed.

The process of polishing with simultaneous checking and also spectral and interference methods developed to test birefringent filter (BF) elements allowed us to design and manufacture multi-element BFs with extreme parameters for high resolution Doppler mapping of the solar atmosphere.

Probable sources of measurement errors in ranging Earth surface with laser rangefinders and altimeters from on board space vehicles are considered. The results of ranging of the ocean surface with BALKAN Russian lidar are presented as an example.

An analysis of measurement errors of distance to the surface with narrow scattering indicatrix (mirror surface) by laser triangulation is given. We consider two types of sensors: with output plane orthogonal to the optical axis, and with tilted one (corresponding to the Scheimpflug principle). The conditions of Scheimpflug principle applicability for mirror surface testing are determined. We have shown, that at a certain ratio of parameters of optical system of the sensor to the probing light beam, the sensor with orthogonal plane of photoregistration can provide a smaller level of measurement errors than sensor with tilted output plane, despite the presence of defocusing. These advantages remain valid also at small surface tilts.

A method of measuring the diameter of circular reflecting cylinders using the interference pattern which is formed when their surface is illuminated by a grazing plane monochromatic light beam. In the approximation of geometrical optics, the behavior of the recorded intensity distribution under inaccurate positioning of the cylinder measured has been studied, and it has been demonstrated that when the field is registered in a zone remote from its diametral plane, the criticity of the measuring scheme to longitudinal displacement of the object decreases noticeably. An analytical formula has been obtained which makes it possible to reconstruct the objects diameter by its interference pattern in the remote zone. For estimation ofthe influence oflight diffraction on the interference field, an equivalent model of field formation has been built according to which it may be regarded as a result of interference of a plane monochromatic wave and two point sources — a "floating" (on the objects surface) one and a stationary one, with ray and Fresnel type radiation patterns accordingly. As a result ofcalculations, it has been demonstrated that light diffraction on the cylinder influences noticeable the interference pattern which has to be taken into account when estimating the diameters of reflecting cylinders by the interference method with a high accuracy.

The problem of distance measurements up to a few hundreds of meters with an error of several micrometers is still important and urgent for modem metrology. It is of particular interest in mechanical engineering for metal working, high precision mounting of equipment, in geodesy for metrological certification of EDM instruments and GPS receivers, in geophysics for measurements of the Earth's crust deformations and prediction of earthquakes, etc.

The measurement of local distances by use of the interference pattern of partially coherent light is described. A new technique has been proposed for a single-touch measurement of the distance to a object point (a minimum size is not more than 10 ?m) of the object surface with an error of not more than 2 ?m, by reading interference patterns on a single-element photoreceiver. Experimental verification has been carried out, the results are provided.

Recent demands on measurements of cutting tool inserts require integration of measuring process and CAD coupling ensuring reduction of operator influences and control time. This work presents a newly developed system for creating clouds of 3D measuring points by combination of white light interferometry and fringe projection with two separate instruments. Data obtained by sensors are transformed, registered and the actual shape of a cutting tool insert is reconstructed. By fitting the actual shape in the reference one, presented by CAD model, are visualised deviations of a cutting tool insert in a false colour representation. This procedure ensures production application of only functionally capable cutting tool inserts.

A commercial fibre optic low coherence tandem interferometer (FOLCTI) multichannel measuring system for in-line hot point gauging of float glass is described. Optical methods of in-line absolute gauging of transparent bodies are reviewed, and the advantages of FOLCTI are shown. Multimode fibre based FOLCTI gauges are considered, and their advantages and limitations are shown. Possible industrial applications of FOLCTI gauges beyond the glass industry are discussed.

The progressive change of production in the sense of a stable, economical and quality-assuring production of single parts and assembly parts requires the reduction of the systematic errors and a sweeping control of the random errors, in order to achieve a decrease of the reworks-costs and a safe evaluation of production concerning the used tools and machines. If during the evaluation of the measuring procedures the items under test are only divided into the categories "Acceptable", "Not Acceptable" and "Rework", the process quality assurance measures in the production are insufficient. In order to interpret all measuring data, one needs a software tool that clearly concludes on detailed results about the measured objects and the tools / machines used.

The optoelectronic systems for noncontact dimensional inspection of cylindrical items applied to atomic industry are presented. The structural schemes of the proposed systems, the technical performances and results of their practical application are given. Inaccuracy of measurements is ± 0.01 — ± 0.03 mm. The inspection capacity is a few hundreds of items per hour. At present these systems are under operating conditions as an integral part of the technological process of the atomic items production.

A description of machine sight system developed at IA&E of the Siberian Branch of RAS intended for the control of crystals cultivation process is given. The work of the system is based on digital processing of optical signals (images) registered by digital video cameras with linear photoreceivers. The algorithms of processing are developed which secure receipt of the melting level estimations, diameter of a crystal, width of the zone of meniscus. The metrological characteristics of system are given; the results of its testing and perspective variants of realization are analyzed.

We present the suitability of the Third Harmonic Generation (THG) technique as a new nonlinear microprobe for non destructive determination of the index profile of new types of optical fibers and particularly for the test of Photonic Bandgap (Bragg type) and microstructured air-silica (MAS) fibers. The complete spatial characteristics such as hole diameter and spacing into MAS fibers or sandwiched layer thickness into Bragg fibers were demonstrated to be attainable anywhere along a bare fiber.

Two approaches to measurement of melt level in crucible are analyzed: the traditional one based on the use of laser triangulation sensor and the proposed method based on the use of noncoherent passive binocular sensor permitting to measure simultaneously both the melt level and the diameter of the crystal during the crystal growth. The limitations of these approaches are analysed. Estimates of metrological characteristics (systematic measurement errors and effective range) depending on the level of melt, its angular velocity and the distance of measurement zone from the centre of rotation are given. The requirements to the algorithms of digital signal processing, which should take into account the peculiarities of laser beam reflection from a non-stationary dynamic surface, are formulated. Possible sources of measurement errors are discussed, and results of such binocular sensor simulation that allow estimating its metrological characteristics for different values of system parameters are produced.

Actual manufacturing machines must have a repeatable and accurate behavior. Unfortunately, according to a CIRP evaluation, more than 50% of the machining errors even in the case of modern machine tools are due to the thermal phenomena. The optimization of the thermal behavior of machine tools is a very important part of a unitary metrology concept, which must take into account all factors, proportional with their importance. The author has carried out for the first time in Romania, a thermographical study of machine tools. The obtained improvement contributed to a better quality and a higher precision of Romanian machine tools and also to a better technological organization inside the factory. There were some first steps (in the years '70 -'80) of the quality management in Romania, according to the international standards, and advanced metrology concepts. The paper presents some of the results obtained at the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Other tests were carried out at the University of Stuttgart, Germany.

Defects in nonlinear optical barium metaborate crystals (?- and ?-BBO) have been investigated by means of optical spectroscopy and thermal activation methods. Low-temperature absorption peaks have been observed in all samples. The dependence of these peaks upon crystalline phase and type of the flux used while growing is low. This fact indicates that intrinsic defects play the leading role in absorption.. It is shown that while growing BBO crystals by TSSG technique, defects, which form deep electron-type traps in the forbidden gap, are generated.

Residual stresses appeared with time due to the imperfection of the material production process. Sometimes the redistribution of residual stresses is the reason of cracks initiation in the tested object on one of the manufacturing stages or this redistribution increases them up to the critical value, when a small external load results in breakage ofthis object. Relaxation is the main reason of redistribution of residual stresses and it can occur without extemal influence or ifthere is heating, static and cyclic loads. Relaxation results in change of the sizes and shapes of the tested object. The dimensional stability is especially important in modern high technologies, in particular in the use of compact discs for the storage of information. Modem CDs are produced from polycarbonate, possessing an effect of birefringence. It allows to make an estimation of stresses at CDs by the method of photoelasticity. A metallized coating put on one of a CD surfaces provides ideal conditions for registration of interference picture observed in the reflected light. When investigating the stresses in CDs with the use of reflective V-type plane polariscope the solving equations become similar to those used in a photoelastic coating method. The present work discusses the results of the research of the residual stresses in CDs with various operation time produced by various firms and by different technologies (punching, laser recording). A simple optical method ofthe NDT ofCDs at various stages oftheir manufacturing is offered.

Techniques for realization of laser measurements and relevant equipment created at the FSPC "GIPO" have been considered. The techniques have been developed for technological and inspective control ofthe objective parameters such as operational and focal lengths, sizes of the minimal scattering spot and transmittances in ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) spectral regions. The results of measurements of the parameters of IR objectives (designed at the FSPC "GIPO") comprising aspherical and kinoform optical elements have been presented.

Description of an automatic device for reading of symbolic information from the surface of fabricated metal products in line production and its identification are presented. Construction and structure these devices provide its good embedding into processing line. Original form of diffuse illuminant and peculiarity of optical scheme allow receiving qualitative code surface imaging independently of external illumination. The problems occurring in reading and processing of information from non-planar surfaces are discussed. The report offers concrete means and ways of their decision. The original algorithm, which was used for reliability enhancement of reading the information under time limited conditions provided high (more then 93%) probability of identification. The time of reading of symbol code and its identification are about five seconds. The device test results are also presented here.

A method of local anisotropic features for recognition of symbolic images produced with the help of a laser on the cylindrical surface of the plug of fuel elements is described. The method is based on representation of each pixel of the image by a direction of the dominant orientation of its local vicinities. The value of the recognized symbol is determined by that standard, with which the maximal number of coincidences is obtained. A device for automated reading and recognition of digital information (7 symbols from 0 to 9) with productivity 3 fuel elements in minute is presented, and experimental results confirming the efficiency and reliability ofthe recognition method are given.

Technical characteristics, advantages and applications of an automated optoelectronic measuring system for inspection of internal and external thread geometry parameters, designed by "OPTEL" company Ltd of Ufa State Aviation Technical University are presented. The measuring apparatus can be applied in research and in industry. Its main advantages are non-contact non-destructive inspection and high productivity.

The paper considers the effect of CO2-laser fusing on wear resistance of a plasma coating made of self-fluxing powdered materials. The coefficient of mixing, depending on the depth of a melted layer and plasma coating thickness, is chosen as the characteristics of laser fusing. Wear resistance tests have shown that there is a specific range of mixing coefficient values within which wear resistance of fused plasma coatings is minimum. The data of micro-X-ray spectrum and X-ray spectrum analysis of the treating surface have shown that the increase of wear resistance is caused by the formation of strengthening phases that occurs at the given conditions of laser fusing.

Stages of development and possibilities of application of laser position sensors based on the triangulation method in various fields of production are considered. Examples of their use in various inspection-measuring systems applied in metallurgy and automobile industry, power engineering and railway transport are presented. It is demonstrated that an increase in rapidity of operations of sensors from 30 to 30 000 measurements per second has made it possible to solve complicated comprehensive problems and enlarge the field of use of laser position sensors.

The technical characteristics, advantages and applications of an automated optoelectronic measuring system for inspection of mounting parameters of gas-turbine engine (GTE) blades in cascades, designed by "OPTEL company Ltd of Ufa State Aviation Technical University is presented in this paper. The measuring apparatus can be applied for research and in industry. Its main advantages are non-contact non-destructive inspection and high productivity. The unique laser computer-aided system for automated measurements of geometrical parameters of GTE blades is designed and introduced.

A diffraction interferometer with a Fresnel zone plate (hologram) situated in the center of curvature of a concave mirror was created to test the shape of surface of spherical and parabolic mirrors. Conditions of minimizing the instrumental error of the scheme to < ?/20 are determined. Methods for suppression of noise and destructive interference patterns are found. Metrological tests of the interferometer were carried out; they substantiated its suitability for tests under service conditions.

Safety of nuclear reactor and ensuring their high exploitation reliability are urgent problems of nuclear power engineering. This requires a 1 00% noncontact precise productive inspection of geometrical parameters of fuel elements, including their cladding diameter, length and straightness. Optoelectronic devices "Control-i" and "Control-2" for automated noncontact dimensional inspection of fuel elements of Russian nuclear reactors VVER-1000 and VVER-440, incorporated to technological line of their production, are developed and produced at TDI STE. The measurement method using shadow technique, structural block-scheme, operation, software and metrological assurance of these devices are presented. Special attention is paid to the basic modules-measuring gages. As a result of industrial testing of these devices it has been established that diameter measurement error does not exceed 8 ?m, deviation from straightness is less than 15?m, and the length - 0,15 mm. The devices at present are in pilot industrial exploitation.

Results of work on development of an optoelectronic system for size inspection of holes in sieves used in the industry for separation of diamonds are described. A description and analysis of techniques for estimating the size of holes represented by images are made, technical solutions determining the basic metrological parameters of the optoelectronic system for inspection of diameter and of the intercenter distance of round trough holes in sieves are studied. Result of studying the algorithm for estimation of the hole size ensuring an error of no more than 0.02% of the image size are discussed. Characteristics of analytical sieves automatic checking are given. The developed inspection system has the working field of 200x200 mm, the diameter measurement error of no more than 3 ?m, and the intercenter distance of 5 ?m. The time of measurement of one hole is 0.2 sec.

A summary of an automatic X-ray tomography station for weld connections control of rod fuel elements is presented in this paper. It also gives a description ofthe algorithms for obtaining multilayer panoramic tomograms. The investigation results of the automatic defect like pores location and measurement are stated here. The proposed decisions allow to cany out a total seam control during one minute, to locate and measure in automatic mode the pores with dimensions of 100 micrometers and more with an error of no more than 15%.

The versions of layouts using circular computer-generated holograms for testing optical surfaces (including the aspherical ones) and centered optical systems have been presented. The examples of practical application of the control instrumentation developed have been given.

The paper explores the effect that a reduction in the scale of size has on performance, manufacture and metrology. It is shown that there are profound changes in which sometimes the meanings of operations and parameters diverge.

The importance of computer aided measurement techniques as a means of controlling industrial manufacturing and testing technical products with high accuracy increases ever more with the general goal of improving the quality of all kinds of products. This development started more than thirty years ago and is still improving. Especially computer aided roughness metrology is a very important and universal tool for solving measuring tasks in connection with workpiece accuracy, production quality, tribology aspects, quality assurance in industry, coating technology, electronic circuit production, assembly problems, statistical quality control and many other technical aspects. A method for non-contact profile assessment and roughness measurement of engineering surfaces is presented. The proposed system uses the well-known effect of focussing a light beam on the surface to be examined, at the same time compensating for the effect on the measuring results of varying material colors by appropriately processing the measuring signal. By combining a low-cost laser scanning unit with the traverse unit of a commercially available stylus instrument and a personnel computer for data processing, the prototype of an inexpensive system for non-contacting optical roughness measurement has been developed. Measurements performed on different specimens differing in surface properties, material and condition show a very high consistency of the evaluated roughness values and surface profiles gained especially in the case of precision machined surfaces.

We propose two techniques for measuring roughness, on the basis of measurement of a phase variance of the boundary object field and on a transverse coherence function of a field, as well as the devices implementing these techniques. The techniques are based on the random phase screen (RPS) approach [1, 2], which assumes: (i) all spatial frequency components associated with the phase structure of the object contribute to the formation of the radiation field resulting from interaction of the probing beam with the object; (ii) phase variance of the object's boundary field is small, ?2?0 < 1 ; (iii) the correlation length of the RPS's inhomogeneity is larger than the wavelength, i.e. /?0 > ? .Aunique relationship is known to exist within this approach between the statistical parameters describing the object structure and associated correlation parameters of the scattered field [2].

Systematization of major fields of laser ellipsometry application is given and basic ways of its development are considered. A series of industrially oriented laser ellipsometers have been developed. These are a scanning high-spatial resolution microellipsometer and a high-time resolution in-situ ellipsometer. The partial accuracy chart of the laser ellipsometers and the issues of their metrological certification are described. The possibilities of laser ellipsometry are illustrated by experimental measurements performed on equipment designed.

Optical non-destructive testing have been broadly used for flaw analysis in engineering structures. The valuable of these techniques has been their easiness to obtain full field information. Likewise, with them one can determine with high precision micro—displacements due to different types of loads. Holographic, moire, and speckle interferometry are the most common optical non-destructive techniques. Particular experimental arrangements can be built to measure in- and out-of-plane displacements. Commonly, in-plane speckle and moire grating techniques use collimated symmetrical beams for target illuminating. However, when the target illumination beams are spherical, a series of errors in the interpretation of the interference fringes appears. Among these errors, under this kind of illumination, are those due to light arising out-of-plane displacement components. These components are of supreme importance when the objects to be analyzed are of considerable size. In this paper, the importance of shape and out-of-plane displacements as factors that introduce error in the interpretation of a phase map obtained from a grating moire and in-plane ESPI interferometers, are evaluated. The analysis is done utilizing the uncertainty of the sensitivity vector varying as a position function on the surface under study. The effect of a slight out-ofplane displacements and surface shape upon the change of the sensitivity vector are numerically analyzed. This numerical analysis shows that serious measurement error can be obtained when these factors are neglected. It shows that the possible errors in the measurement from the ESPI and grating moire interferometers using non-collimated object illumination can be estimate before doing the measurement. A general function of correction in phase map interpretation for any in-plane sensitive interferometric scheme, in spherical illumination, is proposed. Since moire interferometry uses a grating specimen recorded on a mirror-like and prepared with a fine diffraction grating (typically ~12OO lines per millimeter). Gratings are commonly made of photoresist. However, if we want to analyze engineering structures in spherical illumination, in order to have a surface without pre-prepared under polishing, the surface roughness is an important parameter to be characterized. Then, additionally in this work first we analyze the fringe visibility of moire during the fabrication of specimen gratings as a function ofthe surface object roughness.

Measurement techniques of processed micro surface profiles have been increasingly required in the production of microstructures. Especially the demands on evaluating the dimensional characteristics ofmicrostructure components by in-situ and inprocess measurement are quite high. In this paper, we propose an optical measurement method that can be applied to the inprocess measurement of micro surface profile with an accuracy in the nanometer order. Surface profiles are reconstructed by measuring two intensity images, Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of coherently illuminated work surface and an optical microscope image. In this method, the whole illuminated surface can be measured at one time and no scanning process is imposed, and measurement is not likely to be affected by vibration and tilt of work. Such features are advantageous for in-process measurements. Numerical simulations based on Maxwell's equations and the theory ofFourier optics were performed for the verification ofthe proposed method. The results obtained here demonstrate that nanometer accuracy is achievable. An instrument is designed and developed, and an example of experimentally measured Fraunhofer diffraction intensity of an ultra precision grid plate standard which has rectangular pockets 44nm deep at intervals of lOim is presented.

In the x-ray region the reflectivity of a superpolished surface strongly depends on its roughness. This effect may be used to obtain a two-dimensional map of the roughness spatial distribution for flat surface with an average roughness height of the order of one nanometer or less. The method described in the paper cosists in illumination of the sample by a highly collimated x-ray beam, and a line one-dimensional scanning of the sample with simultaneous registration of the specular component of the reflected beam by multielement linear detector. This method may be used to monitor the surface quality of silicon semiconductor wafers, computer hard disks, x-ray and laser mirror substrates etc.

A new method to improve the lateral resolution of differential profile measurement is proposed, together with a related profile recovery algorithm. In this method, the lateral resolution will not be constrained to the distance between two differential probes. It can be a fraction of the distance and is affected by the scanning resolution. In the corresponding algorithm to recover a profile, d is the probes distance, dr 5 the scanning resolution, and dr = d/N,where N is the number of groups separated from the difference data set. Integration is applied to every group to build a profile. Finally, spline smoothing regression is used to the profiles to find translations between them to obtain the whole profile. Computer stimulation was used to examine the effectiveness of the proposed recovery algorithm and good accuracy was achieved.

Rough surfaces were illuminated by yellow (?=O.5782 ?m) and green (?=O.5106 ?m) light of a copper vapor optical quantum generator, and the light scattered from the surfaces passed through a projector microscope. The microscope included a laser tube of the quantum generator and a Glan prism placed inside an unstable resonator of the quantum generator. Slightly and very rough steel surfaces with small rms slopes of roughness were studied. The original ratio between intensities of the illuminating yellow and green light was transformed by both the rough surface and the projector microscope. Rough surfaces amplified the ratio of intensities of the scattered yellow to green light and the amplification factor depended on the statistics of rough surfaces. The ratio of intensities of the yellow to green light at the output of the projector microscope increased with increasing intensity at the input of the microscope. For the relative intensity greater than 0.4, the projector microscope amplified this ratio and the ratio was attenuated by the microscope for smaller relative intensity. Two methods for measuring surface roughness are proposed.

It has been proved by researchers that computer vision has real potential when applied to the automated measurement of surface roughness of engineering components. The present study considers the detailed examination of surface roughness using 2D-image information. First the image is smoothed out using a conventional low pass filter to filter the roughness information from other erroneous information accounting to lighting, waviness, from errors and other effects. A mean value mask is applied over the image a number of times to generate the reference intensity surface. This reference intensity surface is then subtracted from the original image to reveal the surface roughness information. The Hurst operator is then applied over this intensity information to estimate the optical roughness parameter. A correlation graph has to be plotted to relate this optical roughness value with the value (Ra) obtained from the stylus profilometer. In this procedure the workpieces used were of mild steel and they were machined using different processes like milling, shaping and grinding to ensure the repeatability of results. In this process the orientation of workpiece doesn't effect the process and the lighting effect is not considered, and is maintained and assumed that it is identical for all the images.

We present a method which uses two-photon fluorescence excited in an optically confined fluorescent-labelled probe by the trapping beam for the study of topology of transparent surfaces. We demonstrate that for probe diameter of 200 nm, the vertical resolution of the method is better than 25nm.

A procedure is described that employs Zemike phase contrast method for the measurements of small departures of the optical surfaces from flatness. Numerical modeling is carried out to demonstrate the ability of the method to achieve a ?/1000 measurement sensitivity using an optical system exhibiting a much lower optical quality.

The theoretical problem of TE-mode scattering in the integrated planar optical waveguide (PWG) with 3D small statistical irregularities is considered. A new algorithm of definition of the correct approximate solution of the inverse light scattering problem permitting to restore the autocorrelation function of statistical irregularities of the integrated optical waveguide by the data obtained in the far zone in the presence of the high additive band-limited "white" noise (signal-to-noise ratio SNR ? 1) is described. This algorithm includes extrapolation of the power spectral density of irregularities beyond the range of the registering scattering wavenumbers and processing of the data by the classic regularization and quasioptimal discrete filtration.

The technical characteristics, advantages and applications of an automated optoelectronic measuring system for measurement of geometric parameters of toroidal corrugations, designed by "Optel" company, Ltd of Ufa State Aviation Technical University are presented in this paper. The described set of algorithms and software allow converting measured profile into discrete model for subsequent comparison with dimensioned drawing model. This method also includes specification of tolerance range for membrane profile deviation from the theoretical one: the object is fit if the profile deviation does not exceed the specified tolerance range. A new method of measurement and result estimation with the help of non-contact laser measurement is proposed and implemented. A unique laser computer-aided system for automated measurements of geometrical parameters of toroidal corrugation profile based on described methods is designed and introduced.

The paper gives the overview of various concepts of optical measurements of microelements including MEMS, MOEMS and electronic packages. In particular it describes waveguide microinterferometer which enables an alternative usage of conventional interferometry (CI), grating interferometry (GI) and digital holographic interferometry for shape in-plane and out-of-plane displacement measurements of static and dynamic microobjects. Additionally interferometric thermography (IT) is presented for determination of 3D refractive index distribution in fibre optics and waveguide microelements. To prove the applicability of these experimental tools, the wide selection of measurement examples is given.

Results of studying photodetectors (FD) and photodetecting assemblies (PDA) provided for receiving lased radiation in the 0.2÷12 tm range are given in the paper. A possibility of using low-frequency CdXHgI-X Te photoresistors for recording CO2 — laser pulses of up to 20 ns duration is discussed. Photodiodes and photoresistors are compared when operating in an optical detector with heterodyning.

In this paper, a part of research findings on Binary Optics in China is briefly introduced, including several algorithms proposed to improve Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm, Yang-Gu algorithm, some new hybrid optimization algorithms and a precise design method to realize true beam shaping. Some new methods to fabricate continuous-phase binary optical element and several practical applications are also indicated.

Laser metrology often requires the precision forming of a probe laser beam with necessary wavefront shape or given intensity distribution. This problem is solved optimally by application of diffractive optical elements (DOE). In the IA&E SB RAS a circular laser writing system (CLWS) was created for high precision DOE fabrication. This system allows to fabricate arbitrary DOEs with minimum feature sizes below 0.6 ?m and the radial position accuracy of about 0.1 ?m over 300 mm substrates. The investigations carried out have confirmed promising prospects of application of high precision DOEs fabricated with the help of CLWS for solving various metrological problems.

The possibility of applying adaptive-optics devices to ground-based solar astronomy and high-resolution spectroscopy is considered. Due to atmospheric turbulence the resolution of ground-based solar telescopes are limited to 1 arcsec on the average with short period of suarcsecond resolution at good sites. Application of adaptive correction is a ground-based telescope to improve image quality is possible to improve whole performance of telescope to obtain images with resolution about 0,3" and to improve resolution for spectral measurements of the Sun. Adaptive Optics represent a visible tool for increasing the resolution of ground-based telescopes to the level that will be needed to understand the physical processes occurring on the Sun. An experimental adaptive-optics system for image stabilization is described, as well as the results of its tests. Different ways of the further development of the adaptive-optics system for use in the Big Solar Vacuum Telescope (BSVT) of the Baikal Astrophysical Observatory are discussed.

Two new, compact sensor systems for measuring linear and angular displacements are presented. Both systems have been designed with the aim of being compact, reliable, low-priced, yet performs with reasonable accuracy. Common for both systems is the use of Vertical Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) as the coherent light source. The first system is a device for measuring one component of a linear translation, being it of a solid surface or scattering particles in a flow. A VCSEL array constitutes the illuminating source creating a fringe-like pattern in the measuring volume by imaging. Scattered light from the object is detected with a single detector and a spectral analysis of the signal reveals the traverse velocity, the fringe distance being known. For measuring rotation of a semi-reflective steel ball, a compact system has been developed, again based on a single, lensless VCSEL as the source. This system is further reduced in size, as compared to the previous system and provides adequate accuracy for its intended purpose.

It has been shown that high precision diffractive objectives are an alternative to their refractive counterparts for application in interferometers. A design for an all-diffractive, double-sided objective that fulfills the Abbe sine condition has been proposed. It allows eliminating aberrations due to a finite field angle. Ray tracing simulations show that field angles up to 0.1 ° cause aberrations less than ?/20 PV in single pass. A single-sided prototype (diameter - 80 mm; NA. - 0.158; designed wavelength - 632.8 nm) has been fabricated by direct laser writing on photoresist. It was written on a polar coordinate laser system CLWS-300 that is capable of writing high precision DOEs up to a diameter of 300 mm. The blazed diffractive structures were written directly into a photoresist layer that was spinned on a high-precision substrate. Recalibration of the radial coordinate by reading marker positions on the substrate was used to eliminate machine drifts. The writing parameters were optimized by modelling the writing process in order to maximize the diffraction efficiency. The fabricated objective has a rms wavefront error of less than ?/2O in single pass. The residual errors are predictable using manufacturing data that is recorded during the writing process for each element. This permits to supply calibration data for each element. Measurements of the fabricated DOE show excellent agreement between the predicted and measured wavefront quality.

Growth and nonlinear optical properties of HgGa2S4 and mixed chalcopyrite Cd0.4Hg0.6Ga2S4 & AgGaGeS4 crystals have been reported. Sellmeier coefficients have also been developed from the measured refractive indices in all these crystals. Nonlinear laser device application has also been explored.

A comparative theoretical and experimental examination of Talbot effect behind linear, circular gratings with constant period and zone plates is carried out. Features connected both with the shape and with the period of dashes are detected. It is shown that the quality of the self-image of gratings is determined by the boundaries of the range of spatial frequencies, represented in the image. The experimental results of the phase objects visualisation with the help of the Talbot interferometer with zone plates are given. The zone plate Talbot interferometer was first used for the visualization of thermal inhomogeneity in the active laser element induced by pumping radiation. A registered moire pattern allows clearly observing the appearance of distortions and its kinetics.

The way for designing and analysis of the tuned Fabry-Perot Interferometer (FPI) for monochromatic wave filtering has been established and presented. The filter is filled with liquid crystal for achieving the tuneable optical axis orientation. The meaning of the refractive index dispersion on the designing and spectral characteristics of the tuned FPI has been explained in detail. The phase of reflection for the electromagnetic waves in the mirroring layers of the filter has been experimentally determined. It allows one to obtain real effective optical thickness of the filter and successfully applied 4x4-matrix method for transmission calculations. The conditions for lc substance parameters to design the FPI filter have been verified.

Properties of eigen- and non-eigenmodes of the astigmatic ?/2-converter are studied using methods of ABCD-matrix and tensor optics. Several new simple schemes of the ?/2-converter are proposed. Two types of arbitrary beam rotators based on four ?/2-converters in series are described.

We describe a new laser head with Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL) diode for absolute laser interferometry with Michelson interferometer. The VCSEL lasers at 760 rim with mode-hop free tuning range above 1 nm are affordable now. The VCSEL's are fabricated as circulary-symetric lasers; the circular aperture is of particular value as it implies a circular beam profile. The linewidth and the optical noise of the VCSEL laser diode depend on the stability of the current source controller and on the quality temperature control system. We developed a digital temperature control system with temperature stability below 1 mK and high stability current source controller.

Noncritical phase matched laser devices of CO2 laser radiation have been described employing weighted average technique in mixed chalcopyrites like CdGe(As(l-X)Px)2; AgGa(Se(l-X)Tex)2 and CdxHg(l-X)Ga2S4. Such type of noncritically phase matched devices have been experimentally demonstrated in AgGaIn)Se2 crystal

A description of an automated laser technological complex based on a CO2 laser with the power of 5 kW designed for cutting sheets materials is given. Analysis of precision characteristics of the main units of the laser complex is presented. Results of industrial tests of the laser complex on manufacturing of parts from electrotechnical steel are given.

The technical characteristics, advantages and applications of an automated optoelectronic measuring system designed in "Optel" company, Ufa State Aviation Technical University are presented in this paper. The mobile measuring system is applied for inspection of contact net constructions in electrified railways. It is a non-contact optoelectronic computer-aided system, allowing rapid measurements of single and double wire contact parameters: wear, height, zigzag and quality of slide surface.

A compact absolute shaft angular encoder with resolution of 5 arc seconds (18 bits) has been developed. It has the direct readout channel with 14-bit optical code disk and the interpolation channel for obtaining the additional 4 low-order bits by means of analog-to-digital conversion and processing of the quadrature signals from the interpolation track of the code disk. The small sizes of the encoder are achieved by employing special components. Among them are a multiple beam illuminator with diffractive Dammann grating, specialized electronics used for digital data reading and processing and implemented on the base of integrated linear photodetector array, and also a microcontroller with RISC-processor and programmable device.

A new technology for separation of diamonds is proposed: a combined use of the Rayleigh and Ramanlight Scattering in a two-stage separator. A brief description of various units for detection is given. Results of work on development and experimental checking of such a separator are presented. The method of laser-aided separation of diamonds based on the principle of elastic (without any frequency shift) light scattering has no analogs and is protected by a patent.

The operation principle and peculiarities of step micromotors based on the effect of electrostatic rolling of thin metallic films on the ferroelectric surface are studied. The characteristics of the reversible step micromotor designed on the basis of the described effect, using barium strontium niobate Ba0.5Sr0.5Nb2O6 with 2-4 ?m thickness and dielectric permeability value equal to 2000 — 4000 are given. The voltage pulse duration is equal to ? - 50 — 500 ?s, clock frequency equal to 1 — 10 kHz. The moving element step can range from 100Å to 10 ?m, depending on V and ?.

A new spectrophotometric method to measure the response of spectral characteristics of reflection holograms on photopolymer materials simultaneously with the process of recording the hologram is proposed and realized. The results of experiments, in particular on the influences of shrinkage of thickness of recording media on the shift of the spectral response of the reflection hologram are considered.

Energy (frequency) of phonons is the main parameter which determines ratio between probabilities of radiative and radiationless transitions in luminescence. Single crystals of double chlorides KPb2C15 and bromides KPb2Br5 , which are formed by heavy ions and have a low energy phonon spectrum (h? <200 and 150 cm-1, respectively), of optical quality were obtained using the Bridgmen-Stockbarger technique. We studied the optical spectra and luminescence kinetics of RE —doped crystals (RE= Pr3+, Nd3+, Tb3+, Ho3+, Er3+ etc). Intensity parameters were determined by the Judd-Ofelt method, radiative and non-radiative transition probabilities were calculated. It was shown that low multiphonon relaxation rate in these crystals together with high values of radiative probabilities leads to the evidence of high intensity luminescence in spectral domain from 360 to 9000 nm. These features make these crystals promising for practical applications as active media for UV, VIS and mid-IR solid state lasers and amplifiers with laser diode pumping.

The method of minimization of residual aberrations in a gradient of axially symmetrical media is considered. It is based on the real ray-tracing algorithm in gradient-index media (GRIN) by a numerical method in cylindrical coordinates, with Gaussian GRIN model, and with optimization model of automated aberrations correction in GRIN.

The results of scanning method research for testing of diffraction optical elements are shown in this paper. The diffraction efficiency of a specimen of diffraction optical element (Fresnel lens) was measured by the proposed scanning method and by direct (integral) method. Measured data are compared and analyzed. Results of efficiency measurement of diffraction optical element, that produces non-spherical wavefront transformation, are presented and discussed. The parameters of the fulfilled phase profile for these diffractive optical elements are evaluated.

Polarization methods are widely used in studies of different physical, chemical and geometrical characteristics of objects. The spectrum of such methods application is wide enough. The results, received using these methods allow to measure the phase characteristics of wavelength with the accuracy of 10-5 ?. The basic tendency of these methods development and modernization is aimed at the miniaturization of the polarization measuring means. The optical polarization sensors that are developed and produced at the Technological Institute of Applied Microelectronics (SB RAS) have the original circuit solutions, which allow decreasing the mass-dimensional and electrical characteristics of articles. The results of optical polarization sensors application in studies of biological and chemical processes and gas sorption kinetics as well as in investigations of rock mechanical properties are presented in this paper.

The combination of optical 3D-sensing, CAD/CAM and reverse engineering offers new opportunities for medical diagnosis and therapy, as well as for art conservation. We report our activities on the fields of dental CAD/CAM, face surgery, restoration, and others. We will discuss essential problems and solutions, specifically addressing the physical and technological limits for these applications. One example is that speckle noise limits the dynamical range of optical sensors to about 5000: 1, but a good visualization needs a dynamical range of 100000: 1 . A technical (and commercial) limitation of rapid prototyping is the high cost that prevents mass production. As a consequence, for those "real" applications mentioned above, we do not need only optical 3D-sensors that work at the limits given by physics, we need as well perfect surface reconstruction techniques to automatically smooth the sensor data, without destruction of edges. We have to register many views, automatically, and to visualize the data. The processing chain is only complete with effective technology for rapid prototyping, such as fused deposition modeling or laser sintering.

In this paper, we'll discuss the development of an approach to measuring the object parameters on the basis of image processing and diffractive optics methods. The paper is composed oftwo parts. In Part I we'll examine a number of problems related to measuring the geometric parameters of diagnostic medical images derived via optical and X-ray techniques. These problems are concerned with measuring the geometric parameters of heart and retina blood vessels. Here, the original techniques and algorithms for tracing the blood vessels' tree, detecting vessel branches and measuring the vessel thickness are used. We shall also discuss methods for 3D tracing, that allow the 3D structural images ofthe vessel tree to be derived from X-ray angiographic images of projections. Part II is devoted to the synthesis of multi-order diffractive optical elements (DOEs) matched to different orthogonal bases. These elements may be applied to spectral analysis by using the Bessel, Gauss-Laguene and Gauss-Hermite modes; checking the aspherical surfaces by using the Zernike basis; the rotation-invariant light decomposition in terms of angular harmonics and functions comprising the angular harmonics; measuring the orbital angular momentum of rotating laser light fields.

The results experimental investigations of an interaction of the UV laser radiation with human eye cornea are described. In experiments the ArF (193-nm), KrCl (223-nm), KrF (248-nm) excimer lasers were used. The transmission spectra in UV region, the ablation rate and traumatic effects of different wavelengths to the human eye cornea were studied in detail. The biological safety of using the short-pulsed UV radiation from the point of view of chromosome rearrangement in the cells of eye has been shown. The UV ophthalmic laser systems based on the ArF (193-nm) and the KrCl (223-nm) excimer lasers were created and comparative analysis of using ones in ophthalmology was performed. The system with the radiation wavelength of 223-nm of the KrCl excimer laser for refractive surgery was shown to have several medical and technical advantages over the system with the traditionally used radiation wavelength of 193-nm of the ArF excimer laser. In addition the use of the wavelength of 223-nm extends functional features of the system, allowing to make not only correction of refractive errors and therapeutic procedures but also to treat such ocular diseases as the herpes simplex virus. For the first time the application of UV excimer lasers (193, 223 and 248-nm) for herpetic keratitis treatment was investigated. The advantages and disadvantages of using each radiation wavelengths for healing efficiency of simplex herpes virus were demonstrated. Optimal laser radiation parameters for the treatment of the herpetic keratitis were determined. The results of clinical trials are presented.

A review of the status of a system for metrological assurance of medical laser equipment in Russia is presented; the results of the 1St stage of developing such a system, tasks and prospects for its development at subsequent stages are considered.

Low-level laser effects on blood and hematopoietic system were investigated in 69 patients. We have not marked any authentic modification in fibrinogen, prothrombin index, amount of thrombocytes and time of blood clotting. The transcutaneous effect on kidneys by a continuous infrared laser radiation in therapeutic doses does not render any direct influence on blood coagulation. However laser therapy in active nephrotuberculosis has provoked erythrocyturia. By data of RIR the total improvement of kidney ftinctions was in 84,2%; in half of them an increase of blood supply was noted. The confirmation of neoangiogenesis was also obtained by pathomorphological investigation of surgical kidney specimens.

In the article an information technology of an automated laser optoelectronic system of face-on-skull reconstruction is described. The information technology of the automated system as a whole is considered. Ways of solution of some problems, such as the laser non-contact measuring system are offered. The basic idea of the method consists in finding the main cranial points of the skull and relative ratio analysis of coordinates.

The purpose of the present work is the experimental research of the possibility to use the laser diffraction method for determination of erythrocytes aggregation, erythrocyte refractive index and study of magnetic field influence on the erythrocytes (in vitro) in patients with multiple myeloid diseases. Changes in the refractive index of erythrocytes in patients with multiple myeloid and donors were experimentally analyzed by diffractometry. Essential differences in the refractive index ofMM patients and healthy persons were identified. Control measurements of erythrocytes aggregation degree were taken by microscopic method. Blood of 1 6 patients was studied. An increase in erythrocytes aggregation degree from 81 up to 99% was initially registered in all patients (average value is 90±3%). The influence of a permanent magnetic field on the erythrocytes (in vitro) was observed, for which purpose 3 sets of tests were conducted: in 8 of them a decrease in the aggregation degree from 3 up to 1 6 % was registered;in 4 tests no change was detected, while in 4 other tests an increase in the aggregation degree from 2 up to 13% was detected. The average value of the erythrocytes aggregation degree after the application of magnetic field was 93±8%. The obtained data serve as evidence to the positive influence of the permanent magnetic field on the erythrocytes aggregation as a whole, however the mechanism of such influence remains unclear. The undertaken research has proved the laser diffraction method to be perspective in medicine.

We investigated the change of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectra of isolated cardiac graft tissues during their storage at a temperature of +4°C. The results were compared using routine histological methods, experiments performed using fluorescent probes and quantitative fluorimetry. We discovered that the loss of myocardium tissue viability leads to its LIF spectra alteration. Hence everything points that the LIF method of integral estimation of heart tissues viability has a high diagnostic potential. The advantages of this method are its rapidity and a low level of adverse effects on tissue. Thus LIF could be utilized for low-invasive rapid control of transplant viability in the process of its preparation and during the surgery itself.

The present paper deals with research into laser radiation polarized structure transformed by biotissue crystalline phase. This is important for developing optical methods of diagnostics of biotissue orientation and mineralized structure, as well as for modelling biocomposite materials.

A biophotometer of new generation has been developed for diagnostics, medical treatment (including inflammatory process) and control over the process of recovery. The device includes an optical head with an adjustable angle of sight and processing block. The source ofprobing optical radiation is a semiconductor laser ? =0.635 µm, P=5 mW, which influences biological tissues non-invasively. The biophotometer gives an opportunity to obtain spectral coefficient of tissue reflection.

The time course of protoporphyrin and coproporphyrin concentrations in patients' erythrocytes during physiological pregnancy and in cases of toxemia was studied with spectral-luminescence method. Substantial care and attention are given to processing of luminescence spectra of mixtures of endogeneous porphyrines, prepared from erythrocytes of patients. This processing is very important and necessary for practical application of this method in medicine and biology. Our results show, that the luminescence method allows making earlier diagnostics of toxemia and estimating the degree of gravity of the disease.

The results of analysis of statistical parameters are presented for the field scattered by a suspension of mobile microscopic objects at two laser beams sounding with frequency biasing of one of the beams. It is shown that a signal proportional to the intensity corresponds to the amplitude of a field scattered at one beam probing, and the spectrum of the field intensity follows the shape of the probability density of the projections of scattering particles velocity vectors onto the scattering vector. A new high-resolution spectrophotometer functional diagram is proposed, and results of experiments with Brownian particles and tests with alive and dead bacteria E-coli are discussed. A technique and algorithms of identification with small and large scattering angles are presented. It is shown that, according to the theory, the spectra of a signal from Brownian particles spherical in shape coincide well with Lorentzian curve, and the width of the curve is known to be determined by the diameters of particles. The spectra of tests with alive and dead bacteria at small scattering angles differ essentially in width; this may be a good criterion for the identification of samples. At great scattering angles, the widths of the spectra practically coincide. There are only small differences in the shape, which, at relevant handling of the spectra, also allow one to distinguish tests with alive and dead bacteria. The corresponding procedure and results of experimental tests are presented.

This paper presents a new kind of portable device, named Optical Rosette, suitable for on-field stress measurement using a Radial In-Plane (RIP) Interferometer and Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI). This device is capable to replace a conventional strain gauge rosette with many advantages. Since this device is sensitive to the in-plane radial displacement component, both in-plane translations, and the complete stress state at a given point, can easily be measured simultaneous and accurately. The basic measurement principles, as well as the mathematical models for rigid body displacements, strains and stresses measurement, are presented. A prototype of the Optical Rosette was built and its performance was preliminarily evaluated in laboratory conditions and on-field measurement.

The perspective of using diode pumped solid-state 1.5 — 2 µm lasers for synthesis of laser measurement systems is discussed. Comparative estimations of atmospheric transmission in spectral windows of 1 .0 — 1.1 µm, 1 .5 — 1.7 µm and 2.0-2.3 µm are made, and characteristics of solid-state lasers and low-threshold receivers are considered. It is shown that lasers based on Yb-Er glass and crystals doped with erbium and holmium ions are preferable to lasers based on non-linear optical converters of neodymium-lasers radiation to the 1.5 — 2 µm spectral region by their "efficiency/cost" ratio.

It is generally accepted that buildings shelter us from the most unpleasant and unhealthy outdoor conditions and pollutants. However, reductions in ventilation rates to conserve energy and extensive use of new building materials, many of which emit organic compounds have made us aware that the indoor environment poses its own threats of discomfort and injury to health. Hundreds of volatile organic components (VOC) have been detected in the indoor air. Some of them are known to be toxic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic. Volatile organic compounds are now a major source of air pollution in Europe. However, none has attracted as much attention as formaldehyde. There is a growing awareness that VOC concentrations existing in indoor and outdoor air is very high, whereas the number of sources that emit VOCs is just enormous. Research is urgently needed for development of reasonable standards for indoor air quality, in the design of healthful built environments from this point of view.

An optical system providing for brightness amplification and an automated technological plant designed for laser microprocessing have been developed on the basis of the laser system "generator —amplifier". The structure includes two copper vapour laser active elements and a locked power supply. The plant has been used for the manufacturing of various products for electronics. It has a higher efficiency than any of the conventional methods of dimensional processing.

The optic-absorption method is suggested for continuously controlling the chemical composition of emissions. The method allowed us to develop a long-lived compact optic-absorption gas-analyzer with patent novelty and threshold sensitivity for CO at the level of 10 ppm, NO —20ppm, and SO2 — 1 ppm.

Technical characteristics, advantages and applications of an automated optoelectronic measuring systems designed by Optoelectronic Measuring System Laboratory of Ufa State Aviation University are presented. The automated optoelectronic system "MARS" is designed for remote non-contact measurement of movement parameters: positions, linear and angular velocity as well as acceleration of fast objects. The systems represent a new computer-aided testing technology. The measuring system was used for testing aerospace objects and spacecrafis for flying on Mars according International program. The systems can be also applied for research and development in aircraft building industry.

Different methods of construction of meters of temperature of a rail are considered. It is shown, that from the point of view of simplicity of building a system, it is most expedient to use an integral method of registration of temperature without application of shaping optics with a cooled infrared photodetector. It is noted, that the measurement of temperature of a rail with the help of infrared receivers MG-30 can be realized by two methods - method of direct measurement and substitution method. The feasibility of the infrared receiver MG-30 for construction of pyrometers on the known principles monochromatic, two-spectral, operating thermal contrast and integral is analyzed. For each method the influence of background noises is considered. It is established, that at restricted angles of vision of the meter in a situation of measurement of temperature of a rail the background noise is by an order less than the useful signal. By way of designing, it is established and experimentally confirmed, that the idea ofcreation ofa pyrometer on base MG-30 is quite realizable.

The method and technology of C02- laser photoacoustic spectroscopy enables highly sensitive investigations of plant respiration under stress actions. The CO2 evolution of some plants exposed to high concentration of pollutants or low air pressure is studied by using a C02- laser photoacoustic spectrometer.

Two laser pointers, the prototypes of which have been developed at the Institute for Optical Monitoring SB RAS, are presented. These are the laser pointer for tunnel driving and the laser pointer for lumbering. The peculiarities of their operation under industrial conditions are considered.

Results of investigation of operation of copper bromide vapor laser and device based on such laser and intended for creating light-dynamic effects are presented. Exciting circuit of this laser is based on insulated gate bipolar transistors that adds considerably to the laser life.1,2

Optical methods for diagnostics of flows are discussed within the scope of a retrospective revive of studies carried out at the Institute of Thermal Physics, Institute of Automation and Electrometry, and the Technological Design Institute of Scientific Instrument Engineering ofthe Siberian Branch ofRussian Academy of Sciences.

A new method of reconstruction of 3D surface of objects with indistinct boundaries is presented. This method allows us to provide measurements of spatial characteristics of the objects. The method consists of three steps and allows to reconstruct 3D surface of objects by a set of planar cross-section images automatically. The method is applicable in flow investigation tasks as well as in laser optic tasks. In our investigation we use a plane laser sheet and S-shaped laser sheet as a model of objects with indistinct boundaries and we show potentialities of the method using this objects as an example. An experimental set-up, applied software specially designed for our investigation, and experimental results are shown.

A method for laser Doppler real-time visualization of the velocity field of moving media was developed. The method is based on the optical frequency demodulation of the optical fields formation of the image of investigated cross section. The visualizer was constructed on the basis of a semiconfocal optical cavity. The results of the visualization of the velocity field in the Ranque vortex flow are presented.

Flow measurement is one of the most important and the most difficult at the same time. Its importance is related to very wide spectrum of applications in industry and international trade as well. A few tens of percent of inaccuracy of the measurements referred to megatons of transferred fuels result in millions of dollars of inaccurate estimation. Most of these inaccuracies deal with fluids of strategic importance like fuel, chemistry's substrates, but also our blood. Each flowmeter belongs to the most popular meters all over the world.

A method for processing signal from laser Doppler anemometers using wavelet-transformation is reviewed The errors of an estimation of particles velocity, obtained by analysis of a wavelet-spectrum of the LDA signal, are calculated. The influence of anemometer and signal parameters on measurement enors is examined. Guidelines for measurement technique are provided.

A new principle of LDV-systems is presented by using sequential filtration as a frequency lock ioop (FLL) and likelihood Doppler frequency estimation. The FLL error signal is the value of filtering complex signal instant frequency. An optimal velocity estimate is obtained as an integral of the instant Doppler frequency.

The paper considers various approaches to producing baroindicator coatings for the study of the pressure distribution in wind tunnels. It has been shown that for pressure measurement in hot-shot wind tunnels the coatings applied on the modified pyrene of porous material which have much less response time than polymer ones. It has been found that in this case using laser-induced fluorescence excited by an impulse UV-laser for pressure fields visualization, response times of about 30 ns can be obtained.

Visualization of optical phase density in flows by bichromatic and monochromatic Foucault-Hilbert transform methods in coherent and incoherent light is considered.

In this contribution we give a description of two modem approaches for the solution of identification problems in HNDT. One approach uses an acitive strategy for the classification of fault-indicating fringe patterns that can be described by the term "Recognition by Synthesis". The other approach is more passive but uses a high amount of a-priori knowledge about the appearance of material faults in fringe patterns. The derivation of this a-priori knowledge is supported by the mathematical modeling of the connection between the visible fault indicating pattern and its cause, the hidden material fault under the surface.

Consideration is given to the principles of operation and software of the optical and optical television imaging systems designed for detailed quantitative investigations of the processes of plastic flow and fracture occurring in metals and alloys. The data on the systems ' resolution, accuracy of measurement and response are reported. The potentialities of the experimental techniques developed have been evaluated and used to advantage for investigating plastic flow localization with the aid of double-exposure speckle photography and special-purpose circuit designs, which make use of decorrelation of two different speckle patterns of the deforming solid's surface. The attractiveness of the effort is illustrated by the data on the kinetics ofthe process ofplastic form changing obtained by the above techniques.

When a special case of a Denisyuk set-up [1] is used for double-exposure holographic interferometry, namely, with the photographic plate fixed to one point of the object under study and plane illumination normal to and through the plate, some interesting advantages can be obtained. The stability requirements are drastically reduced (a general translation and a rotation around an axis parallel to the illumination direction can be allowed); the optical set-up is very simple; white-light reconstruction can be used. For the determination of in-plane displacement patterns, one can either use fringe-order subtraction between two symmetrical off-axis views (eventually Moire subtraction), or use speckle correlation techniques. The most important advantage is that Cartesian components of displacements can be determined with complete object motion compensation by combining holographic and speckle techniques. Some practical applications ofthe method and its drawbacks are presented.

The basic concepts in the application of new methods to interferogram analysis are introduced. Three ideas are underlined: first, way of obtaining decoding of the equations for the analysis of interferograms at arbitrary phase shifts, second, definition of actual values of phase shifts immediately from values of brightness of interferograms and third, method of a volume expansion at measurement of a phase difference of light waves.

This paper proposes a robust method for computing discontinuous phase maps. The proposed algorithm is based on the minimization of a edge-preserving regularized cost functional. We use a robust regularized potential based on the paradigm of the Plate with Adaptive Rest Condition (PARC). Our algorithm computes the phase from fringe patterns with discontinuities on the fringe pattern due to steps on the phase and changes on the illumination component. The method is presented in the context of calibrating Gauge Blocks by interferometric method. The performance of the method is demonstrated by numerical experiments on both synthetic and real data.

The usage of holographic interferometry, speckle and moire methods for 3-D stress-strain analysis is considered. The influence of refraction in nonhomogeneously deformed media on the fringe formation is demonstrated. The calculations of this effect were done using an inversion method based on Radon transform and multidirectional holographic interferometry. Dependencies of the accuracy of the reconstruction in the steep gradient region for the limited number of projections are illustrated in solving the contact problem.

In this paper we report on the theory and applicability of a laser speckle shift strain measurement system as well as some practical results obtained with the discussed system from fibres, foils and standardised specimen. Some of the results presented can not be obtained with other than optical means, because of the fragilty and the small physical dimensions of the specimen.

A full understanding of the plastic zone formation in a stress concentration region of homogeneous and polycrystalline bodies, has long been a goal of researchers in experimental mechanics. Although some analytical and numerical models have been proposed to predict the formation of plastic zones, no satisfactory correlation has been obtained with experimental results due to the complexity of measurement procedures. 1-3 The purpose of this paper is to develop a simple experimental technique to investigate strains and stresses in a plastic zone in engineering materials by using contact holographic interferometers. Contact holographic interferometer is presented as an assembly of the object, surface section and holographic plate in an immediate vicinity to the object.4,5 This technique is used to determine in-plane and out-of-plane displacements of the tested object. If a hologram is recorded at a metallized grating surface it restores information peculiar to some optical methods: holographic interferometry, speckle photography, holographic moire and mirror-optical method. For the interpretation of interference patterns simple analytical equations are obtained. Contact holographic interferometers are used effectively to solve some elasto-plastic deformation measurement problems of isotropic and polycrystalline materials. It is specially designed to permit the accurate measurement of the in-plane component of strain in the immediate vicinity of stress concentrators in plates. Some research results of plane static and signvariable load elasto-plastic problems are considered.

The novel type of automated laser full-field extensometer based on grating (moire) mterferometry is presented. It is designed for medium size field of view (6 x 4.5 mm2). The extensometer is mechanically and virtually (through software) integrated with a standard loading machine. It has possibility to control the load on the base of local on-line strain measurements. It enables the measurements during static, monotonic and cyclic loads and fill-field analysis of arbitrary sequence of images. The extensometer gives high contrast and good quality interferograms and is insensitive to vibrations and works with simple, low cost laser diode. The apparatus includes very convenient fringe pattern analysis software with possibilities to design the calculation protocol best fitted to specific measurement tasks. The capabilities of the extensometer are presented on the example of low cyclic fatigue testing of steel specimens with notch.

Applications for coherent optical metrology usually use lasers as light sources, because of the excellent spatial and temporal coherence of the emitted light. By comparison, the demands of speckle shearography concerning the coherence of the light source are low. This enables certain white-light sources like mercury arc lamps to be an option. But using such a light source leads to new problems. Both the spatial and the temporal coherence are low. Due to the fact that multiple wavelengths are involved, dispersion effects become an issue and must be considered. Therefore, in this paper the multiband speckle shearography using a mercury arc lamp is investigated. Especially the problems arising from the light source are regarded. Finally, some experimental investigations of an object under load are presented.

To investigate the deformed state of the external surface of cylindrical objects with a diameter of up to 100 mm, three types of panoramic interferometers are proposed. These are holographic interferometers, speckle interferometers and interferometers with a referred wave. Their main element is a conic mirror coaxial with the object. Interferometers have a uniform sensitivity of all displacement vector components on the whole surface. The measuring methods are expounded, the measuring sensitivities and errors are analysed and determined. The application fields of interferometers are considered. The first two interferometers record the initial optical information on a hologram or specklogram and then a set of interferograms is obtained. Interferometers with a referred wave produced interferograms immediately, and their electronic form allows to automatize the measuring process. This interferometer measures the radial and axial displacements. Its sensitivity threshold is comparable with that of holographic interferometers and the largest gradient of the displacements measured is comparable with that of the speckle interferometers.

Traditionally, special optical systems are used for observation of interference fields. Such a system is an interferometer, in which a beam oflight source is divided into two. The names oflight beams are object and reference. The way in which the light beams are integrated and transferred in the area of the image depends on the interferometer type. The Fizeau and Michelson interferometers are used often. In all these interferometers the course of reference and object light beams going in one direction is interrupted on photodetectors. The energy of light beams is absorbed by a photosensitive material of the photodetector, being transformed into a photoelectric signal. The photodetectors of different types: photodiodes, photoelectric multiplying tubes pyroelectric, solid-state detectector arrays are used for registration of interferogram. The known photodetectors considerably distort the course of light beams. Their large absorption distorts the form of the wavefront. This article provides a presentation of photodetector having a sensitivity to distribution of the interference field of light waves in space and time. The photodetector has a small distortion of the wavefront. It does not destruct the interference field. Thus, the process of measurement influences the interference field only slightly. The photodetector can be used for registration of distribution of an interference field in space and time. The use of photodetector is for measurement of light streams extending in opposite directions. The application of the photodetector allows simplifying the optical schemes. Beam splitters and reference mirrors are not necessary. Some example applications photodetector are presented. A simple interferometer for a measuring transitions and holographic images is described.

Interferometry is one of the most precise methods for optical testing. Nevertheless, interferometers are not ideal, they contain internal residual aberrations, and the methods for interferograms analysis are subjected to noise effect and depend on the interferogram parameters. The practice of the modem interferometry faces the following contradictions: on the one hand, up-to-date software allows processing an interferogram at an error of A1200-A1500, on the other hand, a really reached error of an interferometer does not exceed ?/50. Well-known interferometer designs applied in optical testing have been analyzed. A design of interferometer containing aligned branches was chosen. It is less sensitive to vibrations and more compact, allowing one to test surfaces with a larger numerical aperture. This is design of an interferometer, whose principal element represents an aplanatic lens, low sensitive to decentering. The interferometer is stable when defocusing the recording system. At the restoration of the wavefront from the object tested, samples of interferograms were used differing in the number and orientation of the fringes, which allows one to improve the test precision. This occurs due to the shift of the object signal in the area of spatial frequencies. In this case the estimate variance of the wavefront decreases approximately proportionally to the amount of sampling of interferograms. The present paper analyses the factors that influence the precision of testing the shape of the piece surface, the possibility of design and programmed algorithmic correction of the factors influencing the testing precision. An interferometer where such engineering means of correction would be implemented could be called 'an ideal interferometer'

A possibility of restoration of live fringe-pattern phase by means of estimation of separate sections of interferogram is considered. It is possible if the phase is a monotonous function in any section of interferogram. Doing so, on-line interferogram demodulation is realized and, besides, the fringe-pattern vibration effect is reduced.

Shearography is an approved and powerful tool for the non-destructive inspection of industrial components with respect to material faults and technical imperfections. An application field of high interest is the in-service inspection of aircraft and automotive components. However, the non-cooperative character of the surface of various technical components has to be taken into account carefully. This paper describes a complete test facility consisting of a shearographic sensor, adapted loading equipment for thermal and mechanical stressing and a new evaluation software ensuring a high sensitivity for fault detection. To increase the performance of the system with respect to industrial applications new components and procedures were implemented and tested recently. To them belong a CMOS-camera to increase the dynamic range of the image sensor, a multiband light source to test the coherence requirements of a shearography system and tunable thermal loading equipment to improve the identification of material faults within components having a bigger wall thickness.

Methodical aspects of estimating plastic deformation zones following contrasting types of loading (static and explosive) are addressed using holographic interferometry. The paper presents sample cases of identification and determination of the shape and dimensions of plastic deformation zones near the geometric stress concentrator at the uniaxial tension of plane samples of constructional materials, as well as the so-called effective plastic trace left after the directed local explosive effect on a steel plate. In the latter case we use the method of determining the site of deformation of the objects with the diffuse reflection. A plastic zone is identified by interferograms and/or according to the distribution of the orders of the interference bands.

To investigate a deformed state of a cylindrical object, a panoramic interferometer with cylindrical hologram is proposed. A conic mirror with an apex angle 90° is placed coaxially with an object. A cylindrical photoemulsion film is placed near the object under study. The axial collimated beam is reflected from the conical mirror and illuminates all object points at the same angle. The object surface diffuses the incident radiation to the photoemulsion. After two exposures the hologram is unrolled in plane and a set of panoramic interferograms in collimated beams is formed. Peculiarities of the image and interference pattern restored by the unrolled hologram are examined. Measurement methods of all displacement vector components of the external and internal surface points of the optically transparent shell are expounded. A tomographical measurement method of relative radial deformation of the shell elements is developed. The unrolled hologram allows to determine the deformed state ofthe object in separate points and on the whole to detect anomalous deformation zones.

Certain methods for measuring the shift of an object as a whole by means of holographic interferometry are briefly discussed. An attempt is made to improve these methods by introducing a test shift of the object under investigation (or a collimating lens of the reference beam) in the time interval between exposures along the optical axis. This procedure allows one to determine the direction (sign) of the shift of the investigated object in its own plane. A detailed theoretical analysis of the recording of double-exposed Fourier holograms with combined phase shift is given.

Wide application of lasers in the optics of scattering media has stimulated interest to wavefront transformation during light propagation in inhomogeneous media. The processes of depolarization laser field scattered by rough surface are investigated.