The European Space Agency has a very strong interest in the performance enhancement of detector arrays for future scientific and astronomy missions. Improvements in Visible and Infrared wavelengths are of particular interest and the Agency undertakes a programme of continuous development aimed at enhancing the capability of detectors in these wavebands. This paper presents the status of these detector technology development activities.

e2v continues to evolve its product range of sensors and systems, with CCD and CMOS sensors. We describe recent developments of high performance image sensors and precision system components. Several low noise backthinned CMOS sensors have been developed for scientific applications. CCDs have become larger whilst retaining very low noise and high quantum efficiency. Examples of sensors and sub-systems are presented including the recently completed 1.2 GigaPixel J-PAS cryogenic camera.

Many branches of science require infrared detectors sensitive to individual photons. Applications range from low background astronomy to high speed imaging. Leonardo in Southampton, UK, has been developing HgCdTe avalanche photodiode (APD) sensors for astronomy in collaboration with European Southern Observatory (ESO) since 2008 and more recently the University of Hawaii. The devices utilise Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy, MOVPE, grown on low-cost GaAs substrates and in combination with a mesa device structure achieve very low dark current and near-ideal MTF. MOVPE provides the ability to grow complex HgCdTe heterostructures and these have proved crucial to suppress breakdown currents and allow high avalanche gain in low background situations. A custom device called Saphira (320x256/24μm) has been developed for wavefront sensors, interferometry and transient event imaging. This device has achieved read noise as low as 0.26 electrons rms and single photon imaging with avalanche gain up to x450. It is used in the ESO Gravity program for adaptive optics and fringe tracking and has been successfully trialled on the 3m NASA IRTF, 8.2m Subaru and 60 inch Mt Palomar for lucky imaging and wavefront sensing. In future the technology offers much shorter observation times for read-noise limited instruments, particularly spectroscopy. The paper will describe the MOVPE APD technology and current performance status.

Current theories regarding the matter composition of the universe suggest that half of the expected baryonic matter is missing. One region this could be residing in is intergalactic filaments which absorb strongly in the X-ray regime. Present space based technology is limited when it comes to imaging at these wavelengths and so new techniques are required. The Off-Plane Grating Rocket Experiment (OGRE) aims to produce the highest resolution spectrum of the binary star system Capella, a well-known X-ray source, in the soft X-ray range (0.2keV to 2keV). This will be achieved using a specialised payload combining three low technology readiness level components placed on-board a sub-orbital rocket. These three components consist of an array of large format off-plane X-ray diffraction gratings, a Wolter Type 1 mirror made using single crystal silicon, and the use of EM-CCDs to capture soft X-rays. Each of these components have been previously reviewed with OGRE being the first project to utilise them in a space observation mission. This paper focuses on the EM-CCDs (CCD207-40 by e2v) that will be used and their optimisation with a camera purposely designed for OGRE. Electron Multiplying gain curves were produced for the back-illuminated devices at -80C. Further tests which will need to be carried out are discussed and the impact of the OGRE mission on future projects mentioned.

We present the latest developments in our joint NASA/CNES suborbital project. This project is a balloon-borne UV multi-object spectrograph, which has been designed to detect faint emission from the circumgalactic medium (CGM) around low redshift galaxies. One major change from FIREBall-1 has been the use of a delta-doped Electron Multiplying CCD (EMCCD). EMCCDs can be used in photon-counting (PC) mode to achieve extremely low readout noise (¡ 1e^-). Our testing initially focused on reducing clock-induced-charge (CIC) through wave shaping and well depth optimisation with the CCD Controller for Counting Photons (CCCP) from Nüvü. This optimisation also includes methods for reducing dark current, via cooling and substrate voltage adjustment. We present result of laboratory noise measurements including dark current. Furthermore, we will briefly present some initial results from our first set of on-sky observations using a delta-doped EMCCD on the 200 inch telescope at Palomar using the Palomar Cosmic Web Imager (PCWI).

We report on the proton radiation effects on a 1k x 1k e2v EMCCD utilized in the Nüvü EM N2 1024 camera. Radiation testing was performed at the TRIUMF Proton Irradiation Facility in Canada, where the e2v CCD201-20 EMCCD received a 105 MeV proton fluence up to 5.2x10⁹ protons/cm², emulating a 1 year’s radiation dose of solar protons in low earth orbit with nominal shielding that would be expected from a small or microsatellite. The primary space-based application is for Space Situational Awareness (SSA), where a small telescope images faint orbiting Resident Space Objects (RSOs) on the EMCCD, resulting in faint streaks at the photon level of signal in the images. Of particular concern is the effect of proton radiation on low level CTE, where very low level signals could be severely impaired if not lost. Although other groups have reported on the characteristics of irradiated EMCCDs, their CTE results are not portable to this application. To understand the real impact of proton irradiation the device must be tested under realistic operating conditions with representative backgrounds, clock periods, and signal levels. Testing was performed both in the laboratory and under a night sky on the ground in order to emulate a complex star background environment containing RSOs. The degradation is presented and mitigation techniques are proposed. As compared to conventional CCDs, the EMCCD with high gain allows faint and moving RSOs to be detected with a relatively small telescope aperture, at improved signal to noise ratio at high frame rates. This allows the satellite platform to take sharp images immediately upon slewing to the target without the need for complex and relatively slow attitude stabilization systems.

The Wide Field Infra-Red Survey Telescope (WFIRST) is a NASA observatory scheduled to launch in the next decade that will settle essential questions in exoplanet science. The Wide Field Instrument (WFI) offers Hubble quality imaging over a 0.28 square degree field of view and will gather NIR statistical data on exoplanets through gravitational microlensing. An on-board coronagraph will for the first time perform direct imaging and spectroscopic analysis of exoplanets with properties analogous to those within our own solar system, including cold Jupiters, mini Neptunes and potentially super Earths.

The Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) will be required to operate with low signal flux for long integration times, demanding all noise sources are kept to a minimum. The Electron Multiplication (EM)-CCD has been baselined for both the imaging and spectrograph cameras due its ability to operate with sub-electron effective read noise values with appropriate multiplication gain setting. The presence of other noise sources, however, such as thermal dark signal and Clock Induced Charge (CIC), need to be characterized and mitigated. In addition, operation within a space environment will subject the device to radiation damage that will degrade the Charge Transfer Effciency (CTE) of the device throughout the mission lifetime. Irradiation at the nominal instrument operating temperature has the potential to provide the best estimate of performance degradation that will be experienced in-flight, since the final population of silicon defects has been shown to be dependent upon the temperature at which the sensor is irradiated.

Here we present initial findings from pre- and post- cryogenic irradiation testing of the e2v CCD201-20 BI EMCCD sensor, baselined for the WFIRST coronagraph instrument. The motivation for irradiation at cryogenic temperatures is discussed with reference to previous investigations of a similar nature. The results are presented in context with those from a previous room temperature irradiation investigation that was performed on a CCD201-20 operated under the same conditions. A key conclusion is that the measured performance degradation for a given proton fluence is seen to measurably differ for the cryogenic case compared to the room temperature equivalent for the conditions of this study.

HgCdTe avalanche photodiodes offers a new horizon for observing spatial or temporal signals of a low number infrared photons, enabling new IR science, telecommunication and defence applications. A large number of HgCdTe APD based detectors have been developed at CEA LETI to address the increasing number of applications in which a faint photonic information needs to be extracted from the noise of the proximity electronics used to sample the signal. In most astronomical applications, the low photon flux requires long observation times to acquire a photon shot noise limited signal. The use of MCT APDs enables a reduction of the required observation time but the noise of the diode dark current still needs to be very low in most applications. A number of these detectors have been developed for or can be used in astronomical applications and we present the dark current and gain dependent sensitivities obtained with four different HgCdTe APDs focal plane arrays (FPAs) of different formats, capable of addressing astronomical applications such as wavefront sensing, interferometry, spectroscopy and imagery.

CEA and SOFRADIR have been manufacturing and characterizing near infrared detectors in the frame of ESA's near infrared large format sensor array roadmap to develop a 2Kx2K large format low flux low noise device for space applications such as astrophysics. These detectors use HgCdTe as the absorbing material and p/n diode technology. The technological developments (photovoltaic technology, readout circuit, ...) are shared between CEA/LETI and SOFRADIR, both in Grenoble, while most of the performances are evaluated at CEA/IRFU in Saclay where a dedicated test facility has been developed, in particular to measure very low dark currents. The paper will present the current status of these developments at the end of ESA's NIRLFSA phase 2. The performances of the latest batch of devices meet or are very close to all the requirements (quantum efficiency, dark current, cross talk, readout noise, ...) even though a glow induced by the ROIC prevents the accurate measurement of the dark current. The current devices are fairly small, 640x512 15μm pixels, and the next phase of activity will target the development of a full size 2Kx2K detector. From the design and development, to the manufacturing and finally the testing, that type of detector requests a high level of mastering. An appropriate manufacturing and process chain compatible with such a size is needed at industrial level and results obtained with CEA technology coupled with Sofradir industrial experience and work on large dimension detector allow French actors to be confident to address this type of future missions.

The Near Earth Object Camera (NEOCam, Mainzer et al. 2015) is one of five NASA Discovery Class mission experiments selected for Phase A: down-select to one or two experiments will take place late in 2016. NEOCam will survey the sky in search of asteroids and comets, particularly those close to the Earth’s orbit. The NEOCam infrared telescope will have two infrared (IR) channels; one covering 4 to 5 microns, and one covering 6-10 microns. Both IR cameras will use multiple 2Kx2K pixel format HAWAII-2RG arrays with different cutoff wavelength HgCdTe detectors from Teledyne Imaging Sensors. Past development work by the University of Rochester with Teledyne Imaging Sensors and JPL (McMurtry et al. 2013, Dorn et al. 2016) focused upon bringing the 10 micron HgCdTe detector technology up to NASA TRL 6+. This work extends that development program to push the format from 1Kx1K to the larger 2Kx2K pixel array. We present results on the first 2Kx2K candidate 10 micron cutoff HgCdTe arrays, where we measured the dark current, read noise, and total noise.

With the recent success of our development of 10 micron HgCdTe infrared (IR) detector arrays,^1,2 we have used what we learned and extended the cutoff wavelength to 13 microns. These 13 micron HgCdTe detector arrays can operate at higher temperatures than Si:As, e.g. in a properly designed spacecraft with passive cooling, the 13 micron IR array will work well at temperatures around 30K. We present the initial measurements of dark current, noise and quantum efficiency for the first deliveries of 13 micron HgCdTe detector arrays from Teledyne Imaging Sensors. We also discuss our plans to develop 15 micron cutoff HgCdTe detector arrays which would facilitate the detection of the broad CO₂ absorption feature in the atmospheres of exoplanets, particularly those in the habitable zone of their host star.

We present the test results of science grade substrate-removed 4K×4K HgCdTe H4RG-15 NIR 1.7 μm and SWIR 2.5 μm sensor chip assemblies (SCAs). Teledyne’s 4K×4K, 15 μm pixel pitch infrared array, which was developed for the era of Extremely Large Telescopes, is first being used in new instrumentation on existing telescopes. We report the data on H4RG-15 arrays that have achieved science grade performance: very low dark current (<0.01 e^-/pixel/sec), high quantum efficiency (70-90%), single CDS readout noise of 18 e^-, operability >97%, total crosstalk <1.5%, well capacity >70 ke^-, and power dissipation less than 4 mW. These SCAs are substrate-removed HgCdTe which simultaneously detect visible and infrared light, enabling spectrographs to use a single SCA for Visible-IR sensitivity. Larger focal plane arrays can be constructed by assembling mosaics of individual arrays.

Residual charge generation, or image persistence, in infrared detectors is a problem that affects many low-light astronomical instruments. The HAWAII-2RG in the MMT and Magellan Infrared Spectrograph shows significant persistence when first powered up. We describe here how we reduce the persistence sensitivity of this detector by exposure to light.

Euclid is an ESA mission to map the geometry of the dark Universe with a planned launch date in 2020. Euclid is optimised for two primary cosmological probes, weak gravitational lensing and galaxy clustering. They are implemented through two science instruments on-board Euclid, a visible imager (VIS) and a near-infrared spectro-photometer (NISP), which are being developed and built by the Euclid Consortium instrument development teams. The NISP instrument contains a large focal plane assembly of 16 Teledyne HgCdTe H2RG detectors with 2.3μm cut-off wavelength and SIDECAR readout electronics. The performance of the detector systems is critical to the science return of the mission and extended on-ground tests are being performed for characterisation and calibration purposes. Special attention is given also to effects even on the scale of individual pixels, which are difficult to model and calibrate, and to identify any possible impact on science performance. This paper discusses a variety of undesired pixel behaviour including the known effect of random telegraph signal (RTS) noise based on initial on-ground test results from demonstrator model detector systems. Some stability aspects of the RTS pixel populations are addressed as well.

The Charge Coupled Device (CCD) has long been the detector of choice for many space-based applications. The CCD converts the signal X-rays or visible light into electrons (n-channel devices) or holes (p-channel devices) which are stored in the pixel structure during integration until the subsequent transfer of the charge packets through the device to be read out. The transfer of this signal charge is, however, not a perfect process.

Throughout the lifetime of a space-based mission the detector will be bombarded by high-energy particles and gamma rays. As time progresses, the radiation will damage the detectors, causing the Charge Transfer Efficiency (CTE) to decrease due to the creation of defects or “traps” in the silicon lattice of the detector. The defects create additional energy levels between the valence and conduction band in the silicon of the detector. Electrons or holes (for n-channel or p-channel devices respectively) that pass over the defect sites may be trapped. The trapped electrons or holes will later be emitted from the traps, subject to an emission-time constant related to the energy level of the associated defect. The capture and emission of charge from the signal leads to a characteristic trailing or “smearing” of images that must be corrected to enable the science goals of a mission to be met.

Over the past few years, great strides have been taken in the development of the pocket-pumping (or strictly-speaking “trap pumping”) technique. This technique not only allows individual defects (or traps) within the device to be located to the sub-pixel level, but it enables the investigation of the trap parameters such as the emission time constant to new levels of accuracy. Recent publications have shown the power of this technique in characterising a variety of different defects in both n- and p-channel devices and the potential for use in correction techniques, however, we are now exploring not only the trap locations and properties but the life cycle of these traps through time after irradiation. In orbit, most devices will be operating cold to suppress dark current and the devices are therefore cold whilst undergoing damage from the radiation environment. The mobility of defects varies as a function of temperature such that the mix of defects present following a cryogenic irradiation may vary significantly from that found following a room temperature irradiation or after annealing. It is therefore essential to study the trap formation and migration in orbit-like conditions and over longer timescales.

In this paper we present a selection of the latest methods and results in the trap pumping of n- and p-channel devices and demonstrate how this technique now allows us to map radiation-induced defects in CCDs through both space and time.

Radiation damage effects are problematic for space-based detectors. Highly energetic particles, predominantly from the sun can damage a detector and reduce its operational lifetime. For an image sensor such as a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) impinging particles can potentially displace silicon atoms from the CCD lattice, creating defects which can trap signal charge and degrade an image through smearing. This paper presents a study of one energy level of the silicon divacancy defect using the technique of single trap-pumping on a proton irradiated n-channel CCD. The technique allows for the study of individual defects at a sub-pixel level, providing highly accurate data on defect parameters. Of particular importance when concerned with CCD performance is the emission time-constant of a defect level, which is the time-scale for which it can trap a signal charge. The trap-pumping technique is a direct probe of individual defect emission time-constants in a CCD, allowing for them to be studied with greater precision than possible with other defect analysis techniques such as deep-level transient spectroscopy on representative materials.

Since the launch of ESA's Gaia satellite in December 2013, the 106 large-format scientific CCDs onboard have been operating at L2. Due to a combination of the high-precision measurement requirements of the mission and the predicted proton environment at L2, the effect of non-ionizing radiation damage on the detectors was early identified pre-launch as potentially imposing a major limitation on the scientific value of the data. In this paper we compare pre-flight radiation-induced Charge Transfer Inefficiency (CTI) predictions against in-flight measurements, focusing especially on charge injection diagnostics, as well as correlating these CTI diagnostic results with solar proton event data. We show that L2-directed solar activity has been relatively low since launch, and radiation damage (so far) is less than originally expected. Despite this, there are clear cases of correlation between earth-directed solar coronal mass ejection events and abrupt changes in CTI diagnostics over time. These sudden jumps are lying on top of a rather constant increase in CTI which we show is primarily due to the continuous bombardment of the devices by high-energy Galactic Cosmic Rays. We examine the possible reasons for the lower than expected levels of CTI as well as examining the effect of controlled payload heating events on the CTI diagnostics. Radiation-induced CTI in the CCD serial registers and effects of ionizing radiation are also correspondingly lower than expected, however these topics are not examined here in detail.

It is important to understand the impact of the space radiation environment on detector performance, thereby ensuring that the optimal operating conditions are selected for use in flight. The best way to achieve this is by irradiating the device using appropriate mission operating conditions, i.e. holding the device at mission operating temperature with the device powered and clocking. This paper describes the Charge Transfer Efficiency (CTE) measurements made using an e2v technologies p-channel CCD204 irradiated using protons to the 10 MeV equivalent fluence of 1.24×10⁹ protons.cm^-2 at 153 K. The device was held at 153 K for a period of 7 days after the irradiation before being allowed up to room temperature where it was held at rest, i.e. unbiased, for twenty six hours to anneal before being cooled back to 153 K for further testing, this was followed by a further one week and three weeks of room temperature annealing each separated by further testing. A comparison to results from a previous room temperature irradiation of an n-channel CCD204 is made using assumptions of a factor of two worse CTE when irradiated under cryogenic conditions which indicate that p-channel CCDs offer improved tolerance to radiation damage when irradiated under cryogenic conditions.

The WFIRST Coronagraph will be the most sensitive instrument ever built for direct imaging and characterization of extra-solar planets. With a design contrast expected to be better than 1e-9 after post processing, this instrument will directly image gas giants as far in as Jupiter's orbit. Direct imaging places high demand on optical detectors, not only in noise performance, but also in the need to be resistant to traps. Since the typical scene flux is measured in millielectrons per second, the signal collected in each practicable frame will be at most a few electrons. At such extremely small signal levels, traps and their effects on the image become extremely important. To investigate their impact on the WFIRST coronagraph mission science yield, we have constructed a detailed model of the coronagraph sensor performance in the presence of traps. Built in Matlab, this model incorporates the expected and measured trap capture and emission times and cross-sections, as well as occurrence densities after exposure to irradiation in the WFIRST space environment. The model also includes the detector architecture and operation as applicable to trapping phenomena. We describe the model, the results, and implications on sensing performance.

We present the measured characteristics of the most recent iteration of SAPHIRA HgCdTe APD arrays, and with suppressed glow show them to be capable of a baseline dark current of 0:03e^-/s. Under high bias voltages the device also reaches avalanche gains greater than 500. The application of a high temperature anneal during production shows great improvements to cosmetic performance and moves the SAPHIRA much closer to being science grade arrays. We also discuss investigations into photon counting and ongoing telescope deployments of the SAPHIRA with UH-IfA.

The Leonardo (formerly Selex ES) SAPHIRA 320 X 256 @24μm pitch L-APD MOVPE HgCdTe array is now generally accepted as the sensor of choice for near infrared (NIR – 0.8 to 2.5μm) adaptive optics (AO) wavefront (WF) sensing using natural guide stars. With larger formats and improved readout integrated circuits (ROICs), this technology shows great promise for more sophisticated wavefront correction and also, potentially, lower background astronomy applications. This opens the path to larger format arrays optimized for either AO WF sensing or low background applications. We present Selex-UH initiatives in both areas.

This article reports the progress on the development of a novel detector with the promise of addressing the needs of extreme AO (ExAO) in the near-IR band (NIR), 0.9-1.7 μm. The camera is based on the electron injection mechanism which resembles how the human eye processes light. The camera design allows high sensitivity operation at TEC reachable temperatures for ExAO at 1-4 kHz frame rates, and at the same time the concept produces sufficient gain to overcome the read noise of the device. Here we present the overall design, test results on Gen-1 (outdated but operable) camera, along with early results of our next generation of detectors.

Raytheon Vision Systems (RVS) has been developing high performance low background VisSWIR focal plane arrays suitable for the NASA WFIRST mission. These near infrared sensor chip assemblies (SCAs) are manufactured using HgCdTe on CdZnTe substrates with a 10 micron pixel pitch. WFIRST requirements are for a 4k x 4K format 4-side buttable package to populate a large scale 6 x 3 mosaic focal plane array of 18 SCAs. RVS devices will be compatible with the NASA developed FPA 4-side buttable package, and flight interface electronics. Initial development efforts at RVS have focused on a 2k x 2k format 10 micron pixel design based on an existing readout integrated circuit (ROIC) to demonstrate desired detector material performance at a relevant scale. This paper will provide performance results on the RVS efforts. RVS has successfully developed multiple 4k x 4k 10 micron pixel ROICs and we plan to demonstrate readiness to scale our design efforts to the desired 4k x 4k format for WFIRST in 2016.

ESA has been funding the industry in Europe to bring the technologies together to manufacture high performance infrared detectors from near infrared (NIR) to very long wavelength infrared (VLWIR) detectors. The UK Astronomy Technology Centre (UKATC) has undertaken the tasks of test and characterizing the new detectors being manufactured by Leonardo, UK (Selex ES Ltd). Initial test results from these programs were presented at previous SPIE meetings in 2012 and 2014. The work since has much progressed to test and characterize the Large Format NIR, SWIR and LW and VLWIR detectors. This paper will present the custom built test facilities for evaluation of large format (currently 1280x1024, 15μm pixel format) near infrared detectors for astronomy applications, the characterization of 1Kx1K shortwave infrared detectors (cut off at 2.5μm on a 2Kx2K ROIC) for satellite based earth observation programs, long wavelength (8 to 11.5μm) and very long wavelength (10 to 14.5μm) 288 x 384 pixel infrared arrays for cosmos applications. Also being evaluated in at the UKATC is a SAPHIRA APD array (mark 5) for photon sensing and high speed AO applications. Custom test facilities have been setup at the UKATC and are being routinely used to test and characterize these detectors under conditions representative of the applications. The paper will discuss the requirements placed on testing in each of these programs along with the associated challenges to evaluate the performance of these detectors. The paper will also include some of the latest test results from the characterization programs, where appropriate.

We report on ongoing scientific CCD detector and control electronic developments at STA. Recent astrometric and spectroscopic instruments are pushing for highly uniform pixel arrays. We present results from sensors fabricated with high resolution 1X masks aimed at minimizing the random and periodic pixel nonuniformities introduced during manufacture. Instrument requirements for large next generation telescopes tend to target larger arrays with larger pixels. We introduce the STA4500, a four output 6120 x 6120 15um CCD intended for these applications. The device includes dual transfer gates before the serial register to allow slow, high CTE vertical transfers to occur simultaneous with serial readout. We also present our next experimental high dynamic range CCD. This sensor uses dual outputs operating in parallel with different sensitivities to greatly expand the linear dynamic range achievable with large pixel scientific sensors without impairing noise or readout rate. Finally, we describe updates to our Archon astronomical CCD controller. Improvements include daisy chained multi-controller synchronization for mosaic readout, high resolution thermal control for sub-milliKelvin temperature stability, and high voltage biases up to +/-100V for operating deep depletion CCDs.

PLATO { PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars { is the third medium-class mission to be selected in the European Space Agency (ESA) Science and Robotic Exploration Cosmic Vision programme. Due for launch in 2025, the payload makes use of a large format (8 cm x 8 cm) Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) the e2v CCD270 operated at 4 MHz. The manufacture of such large device in large quantity constitutes an unprecedented effort. To de-risk the PLATO CCD procurement and aid the mission definition process, ESA's Payload Technology Validation team is characterizing the electro-optical performance of a number of PLATO devices before and after proton irradiation.

The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) camera will be made as a mosaic assembled of 189 large format Charge Coupled Devices (CCD). They are n-channel, 100 micron thick devices operated in the over depleted regime. There are 16 segments, 1 million pixels each, that are read out through separate amplifiers. The image quality and readout speed expected from LSST camera translates into strict acceptance requirements for individual sensors.

Prototype sensors and preproduction CCDs were delivered by vendors and they have been used for developing test procedures and protocols. Building upon this experience, two test stands were designed and commissioned at Brookhaven National Laboratory for production electro-optical testing.

In this article, the sensor acceptance criteria are outlined and discussed, the test stand design and used equipment are presented and the results from commissioning sensor runs are shown.

The primary goal of the HAWAII 4RG-15 (H4RG-15) development is to provide a 16 megapixel 4096x4096 format at significantly reduced price per pixel while maintaining the superb low background performance of the HAWAII 2RG (H2RG). The H4RG-15 design incorporates several new features, notably clocked reference output and interleaved reference pixel readout, that promise to significantly improve noise performance while the reduction in pixel pitch from 18 to 15 microns should improve transimpedance gain although at the expense of some reduction in full well and possible increase in crosstalk. We report the results of very preliminary characterization of a science grade Phase 2 λc ~ 2.5 μm H4RG-15 operated in both conventional and Interleaved Reference Pixel (IRP) 32-output mode and have demonstrated that the CDS averaged read noise at 200 kHz pixel rate is comparable to, and possibly slightly below, that of the best Phase 1 H4RG-15s. We have also investigated the characteristics of pixels exhibiting RTN in the IRP frames.

The science focal plane of the LSST camera is made up of 21 fully autonomous 144 Mpixel imager units designated raft tower modules (RTM). These imagers incorporate nine 4K x 4K fully-depleted CCDs and 144 channels of readout electronics, including a dedicated CMOS video processing ASIC and components that provide CCD biasing and clocking, video digitization, thermal stabilization, and a high degree of monitoring and telemetry. The RTM achieves its performance goals for readout speed, read noise, linearity, and crosstalk with a power budget of less than 400mW/channel. Series production is underway on the first units and the production will run until 2018. We present the RTM final design, tests of the integrated signal chain, and performance results for the fully-integrated module with pre-production CCDs.

World Space Observatory Ultraviolet (WSO-UV) is a major Russian-led international collaboration to develop a large space-borne 1.7 m Ritchey-Chrétien telescope and instrumentation to study the universe at ultraviolet wavelengths between 115 nm and 320 nm, exceeding the current capabilities of ground-based instruments. The WSO Ultraviolet Spectrograph subsystem (WUVS) is led by the Institute of Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences and consists of two high resolution spectrographs covering the Far-UV range of 115-176 nm and the Near-UV range of 174-310 nm, and a long-slit spectrograph covering the wavelength range of 115-305 nm. The custom-designed CCD sensors and cryostat assemblies are being provided by e2v technologies (UK). STFC RAL Space is providing the Camera Electronics Boxes (CEBs) which house the CCD drive electronics for each of the three WUVS channels.

This paper presents the results of the detailed characterisation of the WUVS CCD drive electronics. The electronics include a novel high-performance video channel design that utilises Digital Correlated Double Sampling (DCDS) to enable low-noise readout of the CCD at a range of pixel frequencies, including a baseline requirement of less than 3 electrons rms readout noise for the combined CCD and electronics system at a readout rate of 50 kpixels/s. These results illustrate the performance of this new video architecture as part of a wider electronics sub-system that is designed for use in the space environment. In addition to the DCDS video channels, the CEB provides all the bias voltages and clocking waveforms required to operate the CCD and the system is fully programmable via a primary and redundant SpaceWire interface. The development of the CEB electronics design has undergone critical design review and the results presented were obtained using the engineering-grade electronics box. A variety of parameters and tests are included ranging from general system metrics, such as the power and mass, to more detailed analysis of the video performance including noise, linearity, crosstalk, gain stability and transient response.

PLATO – PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars – is the third medium-class mission (M3) to be selected in the European Space Agency (ESA) Science and Robotic Exploration Cosmic Vision programme. It is due for launch in 2025 with the main objective to find and study terrestrial planets in the habitable zone around solar-like stars. The payload consists of >20 cameras; with each camera comprising 4 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs), a large number of flight model devices procured by ESA shall ultimately be integrated on the spacecraft. The CCD270 – specially designed and manufactured by e2v for the PLATO mission – is a large format (8 cm x 8 cm) back-illuminated device operating at 4 MHz pixel rate and coming in two variants: full frame and frame transfer. In order to de-risk the PLATO CCD procurement and aid the mission definition process, ESA’s Payload Technology Validation section is currently validating the PLATO CCD270. This validation consists in demonstrating that the device achieves its specified electrooptical performance in the relevant environment: operated at 4 MHz, at cold and before and after proton irradiation. As part of this validation, CCD270 devices have been characterized in the dark as well as optically with respect to performance parameters directly relevant for the photometric application of the CCDs. Dark tests comprise the measurement of gain sensitivity to bias voltages, charge injection tests, and measurement of hot and variable pixels after irradiation. In addition, the results of measurements of Quantum Efficiency for a range of angles of incidence, intra– pixel response (non-)uniformity, and response to spot illumination, before and after proton irradiation. In particular, the effect of radiation induced degradation of the charge transfer efficiency on the measured charge in a star-like spot has been studied as a function of signal level and of position on the pixel grid, Also, the effect of various levels of background light on the amount of charge lost from a star image are described. These results can serve as a direct input to the PLATO consortium to study the mission performance and as a basis for further optimization of the CCD operation.

Euclid is a medium class European Space Agency mission scheduled for launch in 2020. The goal of the survey is to examine the nature of Dark Matter and Dark Energy in the Universe. One of the cosmological probes used to analyze Euclid’s data, the weak lensing technique, measures the distortions of galaxy shapes and this requires very accurate knowledge of the system point spread function (PSF). Therefore, to ensure that the galaxy shape is not affected, the detector chain of the telescope’s VISible Instrument (VIS) needs to meet specific performance performance requirements. Each of the 12 VIS readout chains consisting of 3 CCDs, readout electronics (ROE) and a power supply unit (RPSU) will undergo a rigorous on-ground testing to ensure that these requirements are met. This paper reports on the current status of the warm and cold testing of the VIS Engineering Model readout chain. Additionally, an early insight to the commissioning of the Flight Model calibration facility and program is provided.

In support of the European space agency (ESA) Euclid mission, NASA is responsible for the evaluation of the H2RG mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detectors and electronics assemblies fabricated by Teledyne imaging systems. The detector evaluation is performed in the detector characterization laboratory (DCL) at the NASA Goddard space flight center (GSFC) in close collaboration with engineers and scientists from the jet propulsion laboratory (JPL) and the Euclid project. The Euclid near infrared spectrometer and imaging photometer (NISP) will perform large area optical and spectroscopic sky surveys in the 0.9-2.02 μm infrared (IR) region. The NISP instrument will contain sixteen detector arrays each coupled to a Teledyne SIDECAR application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). The focal plane will operate at 100K and the SIDECAR ASIC will be in close proximity operating at a slightly higher temperature of 137K. This paper will describe the test configuration, performance tests and results of the latest engineering run, also known as pilot run 3 (PR3), consisting of four H2RG detectors operating simultaneously. Performance data will be presented on; noise, spectral quantum efficiency, dark current, persistence, pixel yield, pixel to pixel uniformity, linearity, inter pixel crosstalk, full well and dynamic range, power dissipation, thermal response and unit cell input sensitivity.

The success of the next generation of instruments for ELT class telescopes will depend upon improving the image quality by exploiting sophisticated Adaptive Optics (AO) systems. One of the critical components of the AO systems for the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT) has been identified as the Large Visible Laser/Natural Guide Star AO Wavefront Sensing (WFS) detector. The combination of large format, 1600x1600 pixels to finely sample the wavefront and the spot elongation of laser guide stars (LGS), fast frame rate of 700 frames per second (fps), low read noise (⪅ 3e-), and high QE (⪆ 90%) makes the development of this device extremely challenging. Results of design studies concluded that a highly integrated Backside Illuminated CMOS Imager built on High Resistivity silicon as the most suitable technology.

Two generations of the CMOS Imager are planned: a) a smaller ‘pioneering’ device of ⪆ 800x800 pixels capable of meeting first light needs of the E-ELT. The NGSD, the topic of this paper, is the first iteration of this device; b) the larger full sized device called LGSD. The NGSD has come out of production, it has been thinned to 12μm, backside processed and packaged in a custom 370pin Ceramic PGA (Pin Grid Array). Results of comprehensive tests performed both at e2v and ESO are presented that validate the choice of CMOS Imager as the correct technology for the E-ELT Large Visible WFS Detector. These results along with plans for a second iteration to improve two issues of hot pixels and cross-talk are presented.

We are presenting a novel concept for a fully depleted, monolithic, pinned photodiode CMOS image sensor using reverse substrate bias. The principle of operation allows the manufacture of backside illuminated CMOS sensors with active thickness in excess of 100 μm. This helps increase the QE at near-IR and soft X-ray wavelengths, while preserving the excellent characteristics associated with the pinned photodiode sensitive elements. Such sensors are relevant to a wide range of applications, including scientific imaging, astronomy, Earth observation and surveillance. A prototype device with 10 μm and 5.4 μm pixels using this concept has been designed and is being manufactured on a 0.18 μm CMOS image sensor process. Only one additional implantation step has been introduced to the normal manufacturing flow to make this device. The paper discusses the design of the sensor and the challenges that had to be overcome to realise it in practice, and in particular the method of achieving full depletion without parasitic substrate currents. It is expected that this new technology can be competitive with modern backside illuminated thick CCDs for use at visible to near-IR telescopes and synchrotron light sources.

The Transneptunian Automated Occultation Survey (TAOS II) is a robotic telescope system using three telescopes in San Pedro Martir Observatory in Mexico. It measures occultation of background stars by small TransNeptunian Objects (TNO) in order to determine their size distribution. Each telescope focal plane uses ten buttable backthinned CMOS sensors. Key performance features of the sensors are: Large array format 4608 x 1920, Pixel size 16μm, Multi ROIs, 8 analogue video channels, Frame rate of 20-40 fps [using ROIs], Low noise <3e-, Cryogenic dark current <0.1e^-/pixel/s, backthinned for >90% peak quantum efficiency. The paper describes top level application requirements for the TAOS II detector. The sensor design including the pixel and buttable package are described together with performance at room temperature and cryogenic temperature of backthinned devices. The key performance specifications have been demonstrated and will be presented. The production set of 40 devices are due for completion within 2017.

The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) has been officially adopted as the next Large class mission by the European Space Agency, with a launch date of 2022. The science payload includes an optical camera, JANUS, which will perform imaging and mapping observations of Jupiter, its moons and icy rings. A 13 slot filter wheel will be used to provide spectral information in order for the JANUS experiment to study the geology and physical properties of Ganymede, Europa and Io, and to investigate processes and structures in the atmosphere of Jupiter. The sensor selected for JANUS is the back-thinned CIS115, a 3 MPixel CMOS Image Sensor from e2v technologies. The CIS115 has a 4-Transistor pixel design with a pinned photodiode to improve signal to noise performance by reducing dark current and allowing for reset level subtraction. The JUICE mission will consist of an 8 year cruise phase followed by a 3 year science phase in the Jovian system. Models of the radiation environment throughout the JUICE mission predict that the End of Life (EOL) non-ionising damage will be equivalent to 1010 protons cm-2 (10 MeV) and the EOL ionising dose will be 100 krad(Si), once the shielding from the spacecraft and instrument design is taken into account. An extensive radiation campaign is therefore being carried out to qualify and characterise the CIS115 for JANUS, as well as other space and terrestrial applications. Radiation testing to take the CIS115 to twice the ionising dose and displacement damage levels was completed in 2015 and the change in sensor performance has been characterised. Good sensor performance has been observed following irradiation and a summary of the key results from the campaign using gamma irradiation (ionising dose) will be presented here, including its soft X-ray detection capabilities, flat-band voltage shift and readout noise. In 2016, further radiation campaigns on flight-representative CIS115s will be undertaken and their results will be disseminated in future publications.

The reduction of systematic effects is necessary to improve the accuracy in imaging and astrometry. For example, in Euclid Mission which aims at carrying out accurate measurements of dark energy and quantifying precisely its role in the evolution of the Universe, systematic effects need at be controlled to a level better than 10^-7 (Euclid, Science Book). To achieve this goal, a high-level of knowledge of the system point spread function (PSF) is required. This paper follows the concept-paper presented at the last SPIE conference¹ and gives the recent developments achieved in the design of the test bench for the intrapixel sensitivity measurements. The measurement technique we use is based on the projection of a high spatial resolution periodic pattern on the detector using the self-imaging property of a new class of diffractive objects named continuously self-imaging gratings (CSIG) and developed at ONERA. The principle combines the potential of global techniques, which make measurements at once on the whole FPA, and the accuracy of spot-scan-based techniques, which provide high local precision.

We employ electrostatic conversion drift calculations to match CCD pixel signal covariances observed in at field exposures acquired using candidate sensor devices for the LSST Camera.^{1, 2} We thus constrain pixel geometry distortions present at the end of integration, based on signal images recorded. We use available data from several operational voltage parameter settings to validate our understanding. Our primary goal is to optimize flux point spread function (FPSF) estimation quantitatively, and thereby minimize sensor-induced errors which may limit performance in precision astronomy applications. We consider alternative compensation scenarios that will take maximum advantage of our understanding of this underlying mechanism in data processing pipelines currently under development. To quantitatively capture the pixel response in high-contrast/high dynamic range operational extrema, we propose herein some straightforward laboratory tests that involve altering the time order of source illumination on sensors, within individual test exposures. Hence the word hysteretic in the title of this paper.

There is an increasing demand in solar and astrophysics for high resolution X-ray spectroscopic imaging. Such observations would present ground breaking opportunities to study the poorly understood high energy processes in our solar system and beyond, such as solar flares, X-ray binaries, and active galactic nuclei. However, such observations require a new breed of solid state detectors sensitive to high energy X-rays with fine independent pixels to sub-sample the point spread function (PSF) of the X-ray optics. For solar observations in particular, they must also be capable of handling very high count rates as photon fluxes from solar flares often cause pile up and saturation in present generation detectors. The Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL) has recently developed a new cadmium telluride (CdTe) detector system, called HEXITEC (High Energy X-ray Imaging Technology). It is an 8080 array of 250 μm independent pixels sensitive in the 2−200 keV band and capable of a high full frame read out rate of 10 kHz. HEXITEC provides the smallest independently read out CdTe pixels currently available, and are well matched to the few arcsecond PSF produced by current and next generation hard X-ray focusing optics. NASA's Goddard and Marshall Space Flight Centers are collaborating with RAL to develop these detectors for use on future space borne hard X-ray focusing telescopes. We show the latest results on HEXITEC's imaging capability, energy resolution, high read out rate, and reveal it to be ideal for such future instruments.

Euclid is an ESA mission to map the geometry of the dark Universe with a planned launch date in 2020. Euclid is optimised for two primary cosmological probes, weak gravitational lensing and galaxy clustering. They are implemented through two science instruments on-board Euclid, a visible imager (VIS) and a near-infrared spectro-photometer (NISP), which are being developed and built by the Euclid Consortium instrument development teams. The NISP instrument contains a large focal plane assembly of 16 Teledyne HgCdTe HAWAII-2RG detectors with 2.3μm cut-off wavelength and SIDECAR readout electronics. While most Euclid NISP detector system on-ground tests involve flat-field illumination, some performance tests require point-like sources to be projected onto the detector. For this purpose a dedicated test bench has been developed by ESA at ESTEC including a spot projector capable of generating a Euclid-like PSF. This paper describes the test setup and results from two characterisation tests involving the spot projector. One performance parameter to be addressed by Euclid is image (charge) persistence resulting from previous exposures in the science acquisition sequence. To correlate results from standard on-ground persistence tests from flat-field illumination to realistic scenes, the persistence effect from spot illumination has been evaluated and compared to the flat-field. Another important aspect is the photometric impact of intra-pixel response variations. Preliminary results of this measurement on a single pixel are presented.

The Payload Technology Validation section in the Future Missions office of ESA's Science directorate at ESTEC provides testing support to present and future missions at different stages in their lifetime, from early technology developments to mission operation validation. In this framework, a test setup to characterize near-infrared (NIR) detectors has been created. In the context of the Astronomy Large Format Array for the near-infrared ("ALFA-N") technology development program, detectors from different suppliers are tested. We report on the characterization progress of the ALFA-N detectors, for which a series of rigorous tests have been performed on two different detectors; one provided by CEA/Leti-CEA/IRFU-SOFRADIR, France and the other by SELEX- UK/ATC, UK. Experimental techniques, the test bench and methods are presented. The conversion gain of two different detectors is measured using the photon transfer curve method. For a Leti LPE detector the persistence effect has been probed across a range of illumination levels to reveal a sharp linear increase of persistence below full-well and a plateauing beyond saturation. The same detector has been proton irradiated which has resulted in no significant dark current increase.

LAM and CEA-LETI are developing the technology of deformable detectors, for UV, VIS or NIR applications. Such breakthrough devices will be a revolution for future wide field imagers and spectrographs, firstly by improving the image quality with better off-axis sharpness, resolution, brightness while scaling down the optical system, secondly by overcoming the manufacturing issues identified so far and by offering a flexibility and versatility in optical design. The technology of curved detectors can benefit of the developments of active and deformable structures, to provide a flexibility and a fine tuning of the detectors curvature by thinning down the substrate without modifying the fabrication process of the active pixels. We present studies done so far on optical design improvements, the technological demonstrators we developed and their performances as well as the future five-years roadmap for these developments.

We will present in this article the latest developments on the electron multiplying CMOS (emCMOS) image sensor and its potential for adaptive optics applications. We will focus on the E2V pixel structures made in a 180 nm standard technology which have proved their ability to multiply signal significantly during integration of photo-generated carriers with an impact ionizing probability around 1%. Finally, we will discuss our study on different sources of charge carriers during the integration, multiplication and readout phases in order to understand the contribution of the electron multiplication to the output signal, the excess noise factor and the signal-to-noise ratio.

A heat preservation system for mechanical shutter in Antarctic is introduced in the paper. The system consists of the heat preservation chamber, the host controller STM32F103C8T6 with peripheral circuit and the control algorithm. The whole design is carried out on the basis of the low temperature requirement, including the cavity structure and thermal insulation. The heat preservation chamber is used to keep the shutter warm and support the weight of the camera. Using PT100 as the temperature sensor, the signal processing circuit converts the temperature to the voltage which is then digitized by the 12 bit ADC in the STM32. The host controller transforms the voltage data into temperature, and through the tuning of the Fussy PID algorithm which controls the duty cycle of the MOSFET, the temperature control of chamber is realized. The System has been tested in the cryogenic environment for a long time, with characteristic of low temperature resistance, small volume, high accuracy of temperature control as well as remote control and detection.

A prototype of scientific CCD detector system is designed, implemented and tested for the extreme environment in Antarctic, including clocks and biases driver for CCD chip, video pre-amplifier, video sampling circuit and ultra-low noise power. The low temperature influence is fully considered in the electronics design. Low noise readout system with CCD47-20 is tested, and the readout noise is as low as 5e^- when the CCD readout speed is 100kpixs/s. We simulated the extreme low temperature environment of Antarctic to test the system, and verified that the system has the ability of long-term working in the extreme low temperature environment as low as -80°C.

Standard offerings of large area, back-illuminated full frame CCD sensors are available from multiple suppliers and they continue to be commonly deployed in ground- and space-based applications. By comparison the availability of large area frame transfers CCDs is sparse, with the accompanying ~2x increase in die area no doubt being a contributing factor. Modern back-illuminated CCDs yield very high quantum efficiency in the 290 to 400 nm band, a wavelength region of great interest in space-based instruments studying atmospheric phenomenon. In fast framing (e.g. 10 – 20 Hz), space-based applications such as hyper-spectral imaging, the use of a mechanical shutter to block incident photons during readout can prove costly and lower instrument reliability. The emergence of large area, all-digital visible CMOS sensors, with integrate while read functionality, are an alternative solution to CCDs; but, even after factoring in reduced complexity and cost of support electronics, the present cost to implement such novel sensors is prohibitive to cost constrained missions. Hence, there continues to be a niche set of applications where large area, back-illuminated frame transfer CCDs with high UV quantum efficiency, high frame rate, high full well, and low noise provide an advantageous solution. To address this need a family of large area frame transfer CCDs has been developed that includes 2048 (columns) x 256 (rows) (FT4), 2048 x 512 (FT5), and 2048 x 1024 (FT6) full frame transfer CCDs; and a 2048 x 1024 (FT7) split-frame transfer CCD. Each wafer contains 4 FT4, 2 FT5, 2 FT6, and 2 FT7 die. The designs have undergone radiation and accelerated life qualification and the electro-optical performance of these CCDs over the wavelength range of 290 to 900 nm is discussed.

For future near infrared astronomy missions, ESA is developing a complete detection and conversion chain (photon to SpaceWire chain system):

Large Format Array (aLFA-N) based on MCT type detectors.

aLFA-C (Astronomy Large Format Array Controller): a versatile cryogenic detector controller.

An aLFA-C prototype was developed by Caeleste (Belgium) under ESA contract (400106260400). To validate independently the performances of the aLFA-C prototype and consolidate the definition of the follow-on activity, a dedicated test bench has been designed and developed in ESTEC/ESA within the Payload Technology Validation group. This paper presents the test setup and the performance validation of the first prototype of this controller at room and cryogenic temperature. Test setup and software needed to test the HAWAII-2RG and aLFA-N detectors with the aLFA-C prototype at cryogenic temperature will be also presented.

We report the evaluation results of a commercially available InGaAs image sensor manufactured by Hamamatsu Photonics K. K., which has sensitivity between 0.95μm and 1.7μm at a room temperature. The sensor format was 128×128 pixels with 20 μm pitch. It was tested with our original readout electronics and cooled down to 80 K by a mechanical cooler to minimize the dark current. Although the readout noise and dark current were 200 e^- and 20 e^- /sec/pixel, respectively, we found no serious problems for the linearity, wavelength response, and intra-pixel response.

CMOS imagers are becoming increasingly popular in astronomy. A very low noise level is required to observe extremely faint targets and to get high-precision flux measurements. Although CMOS technology offers many advantages over CCDs, a major bottleneck is still the read noise. To move from an industrial CMOS sensor to one suitable for scientific applications, an improved design that optimizes the noise level is essential. Here, we study the 1/f and thermal noise performance of the source follower (SF) of a CMOS pixel in detail. We identify the relevant design parameters, and analytically study their impact on the noise level using the BSIM3v3 noise model with an enhanced model of gate capacitance. Our detailed analysis shows that the dependence of the 1/f noise on the geometrical size of the source follower is not limited to minimum channel length, compared to the classical approach to achieve the minimum 1/f noise. We derive the optimal gate dimensions (the width and the length) of the source follower that minimize the 1/f noise, and validate our results using numerical simulations. By considering the thermal noise or white noise along with 1/f noise, the total input noise of the source follower depends on the capacitor ratio C_G/C_FD and the drain current (Id). Here, C_G is the total gate capacitance of the source follower and C_FD is the total floating diffusion capacitor at the input of the source follower. We demonstrate that the optimum gate capacitance (C_G) depends on the chosen bias current but ranges from C_FD/3 to C_FD to achieve the minimum total noise of the source follower. Numerical calculation and circuit simulation with 180nm CMOS technology are performed to validate our results.

Infrared detectors with cutoff wavelengths of ~ 1.7 μm have much lower sensitivity to thermal background contamination than those with longer cutoff wavelengths. This low sensitivity offers the attractive possibility of reducing the need for fully cryogenic systems for YJH-band work, offering the potential for “warm-pupil" instrumentation that nonetheless reduces detected thermal background to the level of dark current. However, residual sensitivity beyond the cutoff wavelength is not well characterized, and may preclude the implementation of such warm-pupil instruments. We describe an experiment to evaluate the long-wavelength sensitivity tail of a 1.7 µm-cutoff HAWAII-2RG array using a thermal blocking filter. Our results suggest the possibility of measurable red sensitivity beyond ~ 2 μm. Ongoing improvements will confirm and refine this measurement. The thermal blocking filter offers the prospect of warm-pupil NIR instrument operation, which is particularly valuable for cost-effective and efficient testing systems: it has facilitated NIR detector characterization and will enable crucial laboratory tests of laser frequency comb calibration systems and other NIR calibration sources.

Readout noise is a key factor in the performance of optical systems based on charge coupled devices (CCDs). Recent developments have shown that digital correlated double sampling (DCDS) using weighted averaging may provide a further reduction in the system readout noise. This paper describes recent advances in noise filtering using DCDS. Particular emphasis is placed on optimising weighted averaging filters to reduce 1/f noise and the characterisation of system performance when using the unsettled samples within the pixel period. Experimental results are presented and compared with theoretical predictions based on the extracted noise spectrum. The analysis provides a detailed study of the relationship between the 1/f corner frequency, the pixel frequency and weighted averaging technique in comparison with the theory of matched filters. Furthermore, the results include a comparison of the noise profile with measured and simulated noise patterns. Key system metrics, including linearity and gain stability, have been characterised and are presented to confirm the suitability of this technique for high-performance scientific applications.

We have characterized the e2v CIS113 16 μm pitch 4608 x 1920 back-illuminated CMOS (BICMOS) array with near Ultraviolet (NUV) sensitization surface processing and measured its quantum efficiency over the wavelength range from 150 to 350 nm.

The Cosmological Advanced Survey Telescope for Optical and UV Research (CASTOR), one of the top priorities in the Canadian astronomical community’s decadal plan, is a space-based survey mission that would provide panoramic, high-resolution imaging of 1/8th of the sky in the UV/optical (150-550 nm) spectral region. This small-satellite class mission would provide high angular resolution ultra-deep imaging in three broad filters to supplement data from planned international dark energy missions (Euclid, WFIRST) as well as from the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST). One of the leading technical risks on this mission is the UV sensitivity required to approach 26th magnitude in the near UV band.

In this paper we briefly describe the architecture of this new high speed, high sensitivity CMOS detector and report on the results of our characterization and the implications for the proposed CASTOR survey mission.

We present results from our testing of near infrared APD arrays from SELEX ES. We discuss the non-linear behaviour of these devices and compare to mathematical models which show good agreement with our experimental data. We also discuss some other non-ideal characteristics we have encountered. Finally, we describe a compact detector system designed as an easily deployable demonstrator for on-sky testing.

SWIMS (Simultaneous-color Wide-field Infrared Multi-object Spectrograph) is a near-infrared imager and multi-object spectrograph as one of the first generation instruments for the University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory (TAO) 6.5m telescope. In this paper, we describe an array control system of SWIMS and results of detector noise performance evaluation. SWIMS incorporates four (and eight in future) HAWAII-2RG focal plane arrays for detectors, each driven by readout electronics components: a SIDECAR ASIC and a JADE2 Card. The readout components are controlled by a HAWAII-2RG Testing Software running on a virtual Windows machine on a Linux PC called array control PC. All of those array control PCs are then supervised by a SWIMS control PC. We have developed an "array control software system", which runs on the array control PC to control the HAWAII-2RG Testing Software, and consists of a socket client and a dedicated server called device manager. The client runs on the SWIMS control PC, and the device manager runs on the array control PC. An exposure command, issued by the client on the SWIMS control PC, is sent to the multiple device managers on the array control PCs, and then multiple HAWAII-2RGs are driven simultaneously. Using this system, we evaluate readout noise performances of the detectors, both in a test dewar and in a SWIMS main dewar. In the test dewar, we confirm the readout noise to be 4.3 e^- r.m.s. by 32 times multiple sampling when we operate only a single HAWAII-2RG, whereas in the case of simultaneous driving of two HAWAII-2RGs, we still obtain sufficiently low readout noise of 10 e^- r.m.s. In the SWIMS main dewar, although there are some differences between the detectors, the readout noise is measured to be 4:1−4:6 e^- r.m.s. with simultaneous driving by 64 times multiple sampling, which meets the requirement for background-limited observations in J band of 14 e^- r.m.s..

Euclid, a major ESA mission for the study of dark energy, will offer a large survey of tens of millions of galaxies thanks to its Near-Infrared Spectro-Photometer. For it to be successful, the 16 Teledyne's 2.3 μm cutoff 2048x2048 pixels IR HgCdTe detectors of the focal plane must show very high performances over more than 95% of pixels, in terms of median dark current, total noise, budget error on non-linearity after correction, residual dark due to latency effects and quantum efficiency. This will be verified through a thorough characterization of their performances, leading to the production of the pixel map calibration database for the Euclid mission. Characterization is challenging in many ways: each detector will have to be fully and accurately characterized in less than three weeks, with rather tight requirements: dark current at the 10^-3 e-/s level with 10% accuracy, relative Pixel Response map better than 1%, obtained with an illumination flatness better than 1%, measurements alternating dark and high level illumination taking care of latency impacts. Due to statistics needs, very long runs (24h without interrupts) of scripted measurements would be executed. Systematics of the test bench should be at the end the limiting factor of the parameter measurement accuracy. Test plan, facilities with functionalities developed for those specific purposes and associated performances will be described.

As a part of a design study for the On-Instrument Low Order Wave-front Sensor (OIWFS) for the TMT Infra-Red Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), we recently evaluated the noise performance of a detector control system consisting of IUCAA SIDECAR DRIVE ELECRONICS CONTROLLER (ISDEC), SIDECAR ASIC and HAWAII-2RG (H2RG) MUX. To understand and improve the performance of this system to serve as a near infrared wavefront sensor, we implemented new read out modes like multiple regions of interest with differential multi-accumulate readout schemes for the HAWAII-2RG (H2RG) detector. In this system, the firmware running in SIDECAR ASIC programs the detector for ROI readout, reads the detector, processes the detector output and writes the digitized data into its internal memory. ISDEC reads the digitized data from ASIC, performs the differential multi-accumulate operations and then sends the processed data to a PC over a USB interface. A special loopback board was designed and used to measure and reduce the noise from SIDECAR ASIC DC biases². We were able to reduce the mean r.m.s read noise of this system down to 1-2 e. for any arbitrary window frame of 4x4 size at frame rates below about 200 Hz.

PLATO { PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars { is the third medium-class mission to be selected in the European Space Agency (ESA) Science and Robotic Exploration Cosmic Vision programme. Due for launch in 2025, the payload makes use of a large format (8 cm x 8 cm) Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs), the e2v CCD270 operated at 4 MHz and at -70 C. To de-risk the PLATO CCD qualification programme initiated in 2014 and support the mission definition process, ESA's Payload Technology Validation section from the Future Missions Office has developed a dedicated test bench.

Scientific-CMOS (sCMOS) cameras can combine low noise with high readout speeds and do not suffer the charge multiplication noise that effectively reduces the quantum efficiency of electron multiplying CCDs by a factor 2. As such they have strong potential in fast photometry and polarimetry instrumentation. In this paper we describe the results of laboratory experiments using a pair of commercial off the shelf sCMOS cameras based around a 4 transistor per pixel architecture. In particular using a both stable and a pulsed light sources we evaluate the timing precision that may be obtained when the cameras readouts are synchronized either in software or electronically. We find that software synchronization can introduce an error of ~ 200-msec. With electronic synchronization any error is below the limit (~ 50-msec) of our simple measurement technique.

Astronomical instrumentation, in many cases, especially the large field of view application while huge mosaic CCD or CMOS camera is needed, requires the camera electronics to be much more compact and of much smaller the size than the controller used to be. Making the major parts of CCD driving circuits into an ASIC or ASICs can greatly bring down the controller's volume, weight and power consumption and make it easier to control the crosstalk brought up by the long length of the cables that connect the CCD output ports and the signal processing electronics, and, therefore, is the most desirable approach to build the large mosaic CCD camera. A project endeavors to make two ASICs, one to achieve CCD signal processing and another to provide the clock drives and bias voltages, is introduced. The first round of design of the two ASICs has been completed and the devices have just been manufactured. Up to now the test of one of the two, the signal processing ASIC, was partially done and the linearity has reached the requirement of the design.

In order to run the large format detector arrays and mosaics that are required by most astronomical instruments, readout electronic controllers are required which can process multiple CCD outputs simultaneously at high speeds and low noise levels. These CCD controllers need to be modular and configurable, should be able to run multiple detector types to cater to a wide variety of requirements. IUCAA Digital Sampler Array Controller (IDSAC), is a generic CCD Controller based on a fully scalable architecture which is adequately flexible and powerful enough to control a wide variety of detectors used in ground based astronomy. The controller has a modular backplane architecture that consists of Single Board Controller Cards (SBCs) and can control up to 5 CCDs (mosaic or independent). Each Single Board Controller (SBC) has all the resources to a run Single large format CCD having up to four outputs. All SBCs are identical and are easily interchangeable without needing any reconfiguration. A four channel video processor on each SBC can process up to four output CCDs with or without dummy outputs at 0.5 Megapixels/Sec/Channel with 16 bit resolution. Each SBC has a USB 2.0 interface which can be connected to a host computer via optional USB to Fibre converters. The SBC uses a reconfigurable hardware (FPGA) as a Master Controller. IDSAC offers Digital Correlated Double Sampling (DCDS) to eliminate thermal kTC noise. CDS performed in Digital domain (DCDS) has several advantages over its analog counterpart, such as - less electronics, faster readout and easier post processing. It is also flexible with sampling rate and pixel throughput while maintaining the core circuit topology intact. Noise characterization of the IDSAC CDS signal chain has been performed by analytical modelling and practical measurements. Various types of noise such as white, pink, power supply, bias etc. has been considered while creating an analytical noise model tool to predict noise of a controller system like IDSAC. Several tests are performed to measure the actual noise of IDSAC. The theoretical calculation matches very well with practical measurements within 10% accuracy.

We present preliminary results from an experiment designed to measure the effective pixel positions of a CCD to sub-pixel precision. This technique will be used to characterise the 4k x 4k CCD destined for the HARPS-3 spectrograph. The principle of coherent beam interference is used to create intensity fringes along one axis of the CCD. By sweeping the physical parameters of the experiment, the geometry of the fringes can be altered which is used to probe the pixel structure. We also present the limitations of the current experimental set-up and suggest what will be implemented in the future to vastly improve the precision of the measurements.

ISDEC-2 - IUCAA¹ SIDECAR Drive Electronics Controller is an alternative for Teledyne make JADE2 based controller for HAWAII detectors. It is a ready to use complete package and has been developed keeping in mind general astronomical requirements and widely used observatory set-ups like preferred OS-Linux , multi-extension fits output with fully populated headers (with detector as well as telescope and observation specific information), etc. Actual exposure time is measured for each frame to a few tens of microsecond accuracy and put in the fits header. It also caters to several application specific requirements like fast resets, strip mode, multiple region readout with on board co-adding, etc. ISDEC-2 is designed to work at -40 deg. and is already in use at observatories worldwide. ISDEC-3 is an Artix-7 FPGA based SIDECAR Drive Electronics Controller currently being developed at IUCAA. It will retain all the functionality supported by ISDEC-2 and will also support the operation of H2RG in continuos, fast (32 output, 5 MSPS, 12 bit) mode. It will have a 5 Gbps USB 3.0 PC interface and 1 Gbps Ethernet interface for image data transfer from SIDECAR to host PC. Additionally, the board will have DDR-3 memory for on-board storage and processing. ISDEC-3 will be capable of handling two SIDECARs simultaneously (in sync) for H2RG slow modes.

MIMIZUKU is a mid-infrared imager and spectrograph being developed for the University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory (TAO) 6.5-m telescope (PI: Y. Yoshii). To fully utilize a high atmospheric transmission of the Chajnantor site, MIMIZUKU covers a wide wavelength range from 2 to 38 μm with three array detectors: a HAWAII-1RG HgCdTe 1024 × 1024 array with a 5 μm cutoff manufactured by Teledyne, an Aquarius Si:As IBC 1024 × 1024 array by Raytheon, and a MF-128 Si:Sb BIB 128 × 128 array by DRS. We have newly developed an array controller system to operate these multiple arrays. A sampling rate higher than 0.5 MHz is required to prevent from saturation of their wells in broad-band imaging observations with MIMIZUKU due to high thermal background flux. Such high speed signals are dulled when passing through lines from the arrays to readout circuits. To overcome this problem, we have developed high-speed cryogenic buffer pre-amplifier circuits with commercial GaAs MESFETs, instead of Si JFETs, which are generally used in buffer amplifiers at cryogenic temperatures. The cryogenic buffer circuits are installed on an outer wall of the optical bench of MIMIZUKU at 20 K. We have measured readout noises of the array controller system including the cryogenic buffers in a test cryostat and room temperature circuits and confirmed that input referred noises of the system are lower than the specification value of the readout noise of the Aquarius array.

COMpton Polarimeter with Avalanche Silicon readout (COMPASS) is a research and development project that aims to measure the polarization of X-ray photons through Compton Scattering. The measurement is obtained by using a set of small rods of fast scintillation materials with both low-Z (as active scatterer) and high-Z (as absorber), all read-out with Silicon Photomultipliers. By this method we can operate scattering and absorbing elements in coincidence, in order to reduce the background.

In the laboratory we are characterising the SiPMs using different types of scintillators and we are optimising the performances in terms of energy resolution, energy threshold and photon tagging efficiency.

We aim to study the design of two types of satellite-borne instruments: a focal plane polarimeter to be coupled with multilayer optics for hard X-rays and a large area and wide field of view polarimeter for transients and Gamma Ray Bursts.

In this paper we describe the status of the COMPASS project, we report about the laboratory measurements and we describe our future perspectives.

The radiation damage effects from the harsh radiative environment outside the Earth's atmosphere can be a cause for concern for most space missions. With the science goals becoming ever more demanding, the requirements on the precision of the instruments on board these missions also increases, and it is therefore important to investigate how the radiation induced damage affects the Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) that most of these instruments rely on. The primary goal of the Euclid mission is to study the nature of dark matter and dark energy using weak lensing and baryonic acoustic oscillation techniques. The weak lensing technique depends on very precise shape measurements of distant galaxies obtained by a large CCD array. It is anticipated that over the 6 year nominal lifetime of mission, the CCDs will be degraded to an extent that these measurements will not be possible unless the radiation damage effects are corrected. We have therefore created a Monte Carlo model that simulates the physical processes taking place when transferring signal through a radiation damaged CCD. The software is based on Shockley-Read-Hall theory, and is made to mimic the physical properties in the CCD as close as possible. The code runs on a single electrode level and takes charge cloud size and density, three dimensional trap position, and multi-level clocking into account. A key element of the model is that it takes device specific simulations of electron density as a direct input, thereby avoiding to make any analytical assumptions about the size and density of the charge cloud. This paper illustrates how test data and simulated data can be compared in order to further our understanding of the positions and properties of the individual radiation-induced traps.

A major concern when using Charge-Coupled Devices in hostile radiation environments is radiation induced Charge Transfer Inefficiency. The displacement damage from non-ionising radiation incident on the detector creates defects within the silicon lattice, these defects can capture and hold charge for a period of time dependent on the operating temperature and the type of defect, or “trap species”. The location and type of defect can be determined to a high degree of precision using the trap-pumping technique, whereby background charges are input and then shuffled forwards and backwards between pixels many times and repeated using different transfer timings to promote resonant charge-pumping at particular defect sites. Where the charge transfer timings used in the trap-pumping process are equivalent to the nominal CCD readout modes, a simple “trap-map” of the defects that will most likely contribute to charge transfer inefficiency in the CCD array can be quickly generated. This paper describes a concept for how such a “trap-map” can be used to correct images subject to non-ionising radiation damage and provides initial results from an analytical algorithm and our recommendations for future developments.

The Jovian system is the focus of multiple current and future NASA and ESA missions, but dangerously high radiation levels surrounding the planet make operations of instruments sensitive to high energy electrons or gamma rays problematic. Microchannel plate (MCP) detectors have been the detectors of choice in planetary ultraviolet spectrographs for decades. However, the same properties that give these detectors high response to vacuum ultraviolet photons also make them sensitive to high energy electrons and gamma rays. The success of ultraviolet investigations in the Jovian system depends on effectively shielding these MCP detectors to protect them as much as possible from this withering radiation. The design of such shielding hinges on our understanding of the response of MCP detectors to the high energy electrons and gamma rays found there. To this end, Southwest Research Institute and Massachusetts Institute of Technology collaborated in 2012-13 to measure the response of a flight-spare microchannel plate detector to a beam of high energy electrons. The detector response was measured at multiple beam energies ranging from 0.5-2.5 MeV and multiple currents. This response was then checked with MCNP6, a radiation transport simulation tool, to determine the secondary gamma rays produced by the primary electrons striking the detector window. We report on the measurement approach and the inferred electron and gamma sensitivities.

ESO has now delivered or tested in-house, four new 5.3 μm cut-off H2RG detectors, for various projects, such as MATISSE for the VLTI and the upgrade project for CRIRES, the cryogenic high-resolution infrared echelle spectrograph for the VLT. The specified instruments have required the implementation of some of the more unusual read out options for these detectors, which may have already been used by other groups, for example, the line-reset-read and line-read-reset modes rather than the standard global reset mode. The detectors are also offered with both output speed options, that is, the standard slow, low noise readout and the faster, higher noise readout, where > 10 frames/s are possible. In the process of building these detector systems and implementing these new options we have delved deeper into some of the lesser known features of these detectors and tried to characterize them more fully. It is important that these characteristics are well understood before delivery of the next generation of detectors for the ELTs where high speed and windowing options are required. We obtain very good performance at 2 Mpixel/s pixel speeds with less than 40 e- rms read noise, in all other aspects such as linearity, noise versus number of non-destructive reads and cross talk then the performance of the outputs is the same as slow speed operation. However, the high speed output stages are quite complex to operate, they need to be very well tuned and are prone to oscillation, if not set correctly. We will report on the best bias options to optimize their performance. Some stability issues are also seen with the slow outputs and this is also reported. Likewise we have observed differences between global reset and line reset for the detectors, manifested in a significant increase in detector full well for the line reset option, this also will be reported on. We have also determined that there may be signal induced by the detector readout clocking process for certain detector material or ROIC revision, at a significant level such that this may be the probable limiting factor of why Fowler sampling reaches a minimum noise value of approximately 3 e- rms for a small number of reads and then increases with further non-destructive reads.

The high quantum efficiencies (QE) of backside illuminated charge coupled devices (CCD) has ushered in the age of the large scale astronomical survey. The QE of these devices can be greater than 90%, and is dependent upon the operating temperature, device thickness, backside charging mechanisms, and anti-reflection (AR) coatings. But at optical wavelengths the QE is well approximated as one minus the reflectance, thus the measurement of the backside reflectivity of these devices provides a second independent measure of their QE. We have designed and constructed a novel instrument to measure the relative specular reflectance of CCD detectors, with a significant portion of this device being constructed using a 3D fused deposition model (FDM) printer. This device implements both a monitor and measurement photodiode to simultaneously collect in- cident and reflected measurements reducing errors introduced by the relative reflectance calibration process. While most relative reflectometers are highly dependent upon a precisely repeatable target distance for accurate measurements, we have implemented a method of measurement which minimizes these errors. Using the reflectometer we have measured the reflectance of two types of Hamamatsu CCD detectors. The first device is a Hamamatsu 2k x 4k backside illuminated high resistivity p-type silicon detector which has been optimized to operate in the blue from 380 nm - 650 nm. The second detector being a 2k x 4k backside illuminated high resistivity p-type silicon detector optimized for use in the red from 640 nm - 960 nm. We have not only been able to measure the reflectance of these devices as a function of wavelength we have also sampled the reflectance as a function of position on the device, and found a reflection gradient across these devices.

Very large (20 cm × 20 cm) flat panel phototubes are being developed which employ novel microchannel plates (MCPs). The MCPs are manufactured using borosilicate microcapillary arrays which are functionalized by the application of resistive and secondary emissive layers using atomic layer deposition (ALD). This allows the operational parameters to be set by tailoring sequential ALD deposition processes. The borosilicate substrates are robust, including the ability to be produced in large formats (20 cm square). ALD MCPs have performance characteristics (gain, pulse amplitude distributions, and imaging) that are equivalent or better than conventional MCPs. They have low intrinsic background (0.045 events cm^-2 sec^-1)., high open area ratios (74% for the latest generation of borosilicate substrates), and stable gain during >7 C cm^-2 charge extraction after preconditioning (vacuum bake and burn-in). The tube assemblies use a pair of 20 cm × 20 cm ALD MCPs comprised of a borosilicate entrance window, a proximity focused bialkali photocathode, and a strip-line readout anode. The second generation design employs an all glass body with a hot indium seal and a transfer photocathode. We have achieved >20% quantum efficiency and good gain uniformity over the 400 cm² field of view, spatial resolution of <1 cm and obtained event timing accuracy of close to 100 ps FWHM.

The Compton Spectrometer and Imager (COSI) is a medium energy gamma ray (0.2 - 10 MeV) imager designed to observe high-energy processes in the universe from a high altitude balloon platform. At its core, COSI is comprised of twelve high purity germanium double sided strip detectors which measure particle interaction energies and locations with high precision. This manuscript focuses on the positional calibrations of the COSI detectors. The interaction depth in a detector is inferred from the charge collection time difference between the two sides of the detector. We outline our previous approach to this depth calibration and also describe a new approach we have recently developed. Two dimensional localization of interactions along the faces of the detector (x and y) is straightforward, as the location of the triggering strips is simply used. However, we describe a possible technique to improve the x/y position resolution beyond the detector strip pitch of 2 mm. With the current positional calibrations, COSI achieves an angular resolution of 5.6 ± 0.1 degrees at 662 keV, close to our expectations from simulations.

Interpixel capacitance (IPC) is a deterministic electronic coupling by which signal generated in one pixel is measured in neighboring pixels. Examination of dark frames from test NIRcam arrays corroborates earlier results and simulations illustrating a signal dependent coupling. When the signal on an individual pixel is larger, the fractional coupling to nearest neighbors is lesser than when the signal is lower. Frames from test arrays indicate a drop in average coupling from approximately 1.0% at low signals down to approximately 0.65% at high signals depending on the particular array in question. The photometric ramifications for this non-uniformity are not fully understood. This non-uniformity intro-duces a non-linearity in the current mathematical model for IPC coupling. IPC coupling has been mathematically formalized as convolution by a blur kernel. Signal dependence requires that the blur kernel be locally defined as a function of signal intensity. Through application of a signal dependent coupling kernel, the IPC coupling can be modeled computationally. This method allows for simultaneous knowledge of the intrinsic parameters of the image scene, the result of applying a constant IPC, and the result of a signal dependent IPC. In the age of sub-pixel precision in astronomy these effects must be properly understood and accounted for in order for the data to accurately represent the object of observation. Implementation of this method is done through python scripted processing of images. The introduction of IPC into simulated frames is accomplished through convolution of the image with a blur kernel whose parameters are themselves locally defined functions of the image. These techniques can be used to enhance the data processing pipeline for NIRcam.

There are various astrophysical phenomena which are of great importance and interest such as stellar explosions, Gamma ray bursts etc. There is also a growing interest in exploring the celestial sources in hard X-rays. High sensitive instruments are essential to perform the detailed studies of these cosmic accelerators and explosions. Hard X-ray imaging detectors having high absorption efficiency and mm spatial resolution are the key requirements to locate the generation of these astrophysical phenomenon. We hereby present a detector module which consists of a single CsI scintillation detector of size 15 x 15 x 3 mm³. The photon readout is done using an array of Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs). SiPM is a new development in the field of photon detection and can be described as 2D array of small (hundreds of μm²) avalanche photodiodes. We have achieved a spatial resolution of 0.5 mm with our initial setup. By using the array of these detector modules, we can build the detector with a large sensitive area with a very high spatial resolution. This paper presents the experimental details for single detector module using CsI (Tl) scintillator and SiPM and also presents the preliminary results of energy and position measurement. The GEANT4 simulation has also been carried out for the same geometry.

For space-based astronomical observations, it is important to have a mechanism to capture the digital output from the standard detector for further on-board analysis and storage. We have developed a generic (application- wise) field-programmable gate array (FPGA) board to interface with an image sensor, a method to generate the clocks required to read the image data from the sensor, and a real-time image processor system (on-chip) which can be used for various image processing tasks. The FPGA board is applied as the image processor board in the Lunar Ultraviolet Cosmic Imager (LUCI) and a star sensor (StarSense) - instruments developed by our group. In this paper, we discuss the various design considerations for this board and its applications in the future balloon and possible space flights.

We present characterization results from a photon counting imaging detector consisting of one microchannel plate (MCP) and an array of two readout integrated circuits (ROIC) that record photon position. The ROICs used in the position readout are the high event rate ROIC (HEROIC) devices designed to handle event rates up to 1 MHz per pixel, recently developed by the Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corporation in collaboration with the University of Colorado. An opaque cesium iodide (CsI) photocathode sensitive in the far-ultraviolet (FUV; 122-200 nm), is deposited on the upper surface of the MCP. The detector is characterized in a chamber developed by CU Boulder that is capable of illumination with vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) monochromatic light and measurement of absolute ux with a calibrated photodiode. Testing includes investigation of the effects of adjustment of internal settings of the HEROIC devices including charge threshold, gain, and amplifier bias. The detector response to high count rates is tested. We report initial results including background, uniformity, and quantum detection efficiency (QDE) as a function of wavelength.

Charge Injection Device technology has been widely used in radiation applications. Although the technology has excelled in ground applications that have been predominantly for radiation effects using gamma radiation, a Thermo Scientific CID8725D radiation hardened camera with CID imager has now been tested for effects due to proton and heavy ion irradiation to investigate viability for use in space applications.

Near-IR detectors are commonly reported to display latent images persisting between integration ramps. After array reset, pixels previously subjected to illumination show an anomalous charge accumulation rate that is initially high but decreases to dark-current levels after several hundred seconds. Depending on the flux intensity and observation time, the resulting persistence can dramatically affect science observations if not properly understood. We characterize the persistent behavior of JWST/NIRCam's flight detectors with respect to source intensity, pixel dwell time, and well fill level in order to better understand the underlying physical processes contributing to this phenomenon. Results show that the coefficients of functional fits to the latent signal directly correlate with the stimulating flux as well as the pixel dwell time, enabling predictions of the latent emission. Such relationships provide the potential to model and remove the majority of the persistent flux in NIRCam detectors. Because NIRCam lacks internal calibration lamps, we discuss other alternatives to characterize per- sistence during flight operations.

As part of the LSST project, a comprehensive CCD emulator that operates three CCDs simultaneously has been developed for testing multichannel readout electronics. Based on an Altera Cyclone V FPGA for timing and control, the emulator generates 48 channels of simulated video waveform in response to appropriate sequencing of parallel and serial clocks. Two 256Mb serial memory chips are adopted for storage of arbitrary grayscale images. The arbitrary image or fixed pattern image can be generated from the emulator in triple as three real CCDs perform, for qualifying and testing the LSST 3-stripe Science Raft Electronics Board (REB) simultaneously. Using the method of comparator threshold scanning, all 24 parallel clocks and 24 serial clocks from the REB are qualified for sequence, duration and level before the video signal is generated. In addition, 66 channels of input bias and voltages are sampled through the multi-channel ADC to verify that correct values are applied to the CCD. In addition, either a Gigabit Ethernet connector or USB bus can be used to control and read back from the emulator board. A user-friendly PC software package has been developed for controlling and communicating with the emulator.

We present the details of a proposed microwave kinetic inductance detector (MKID) for the DAG (Eastern Anatolia Observatory in Turkish) telescope, DAG-MKID. The observatory will have a modern 4m size telescope that is currently under construction. Current plan to obtain the first light with the telescope is late 2019. The proposed MKID based instrument will enable astronomers to simultaneously detect photons in the relatively wide wavelength range of 4000 - 13500 Å with a timing accuracy of μs and spectral resolution R = ⋋/▵ ⋋ =10−25. With a planned field of view of approximately an arcminute, DAG-MKID will mostly be used for follow-up observations of transient or variable objects as well as a robust tool to measure photometric redshifts of a large number of galaxies or other extra-galactic objects.

CMOS image sensors are widely used on Earth and are becoming increasingly favourable for use in space. Advantages, such as low power consumption, and ever-improving imaging peformance make CMOS an attractive option. The ability to integrate camera functions on-chip, such as biasing and sequencing, simplifies designing with CMOS sensors and can improve system reliability. One potential disadvantage to the use of CMOS is the possibility of single event effects, such as single event latchup (SEL), which can cause malfunctions or even permanent destruction of the sensor. These single event effects occur in the space environment due to the high levels of radiation incident on the sensor. This work investigates the ocurrence of SEL in CMOS image sensors subjected to heavy-ion irradiation. Three devices are investigated, two of which have triple-well doping implants. The resulting latchup cross-sections are presented. It is shown that using a deep p well on 18 μm epitaxial silicon increases the radiation hardness of the sensor against latchup. The linear energy transfer (LET) threshold for latchup is increased when using this configuration. Our findings suggest deep p wells can be used to increase the radiation tolerance of CMOS image sensors for use in future space missions.

The single mirror Small Size Telescope (SST-1M) project proposes a design among others for the smallest type of telescopes (SST), that will compose the south observatory of the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA). The SST camera collecting the Cherenkov light resulting from very high energy gamma-ray interactions in the atmosphere proposes to use Silicon PhotoMultipliers (SiPM). The SST-1M design has led to the use of unique pixel shape and size that required a dedicated development by the University of Geneva and Hamamatsu. An active surface of ~94 mm² and a resulting total capacitance of ~3.4 nF combined with the stringent requirements of the CTA project on timing and charge resolution have led the University of Geneva to develop a custom preamplifier stage and slow-control system. The design and performance of the tailor made preamplifier stage and of the slow control electronics will be briefly described. The bias circuit of the sensor contains a resistor meant to prevent the sensor from drawing high current. However this resistor also introduces a voltage drop at the sensor input impacting the stability of its operation. A model has been developed in order to derive the parameters needed to account for it at the data analysis level. A solution based on the SST-1M front-end and digital readout is proposed to compensate for the voltage drop at the sensor cathode.

The University of Wisconsin Madison is building a NIR spectrograph (RSS-NIR) for the Southern African Large Telescope. The detector system uses a H2RG HdCdTe 1.7 μm cutoff array. We performed tests to measure and characterize the persistence of the detector to inform strategies to mitigate this effect. These tests use up-the- ramp group samples to get finer time resolution of the release of persistence. We share these test results. We also present preliminary results of the dependence of persistence on detector temperature. We conclude with an outline and assessment of a persistence calibration scheme.

The Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) will have the largest near-IR focal plane ever flown by NASA, a total of 18 4K x 4K devices. The project has adopted a system-level approach to detector control and data acquisition where 1) control and processing intelligence is pushed into components closer to the detector to maximize signal integrity, 2) functions are performed at the highest allowable temperatures, and 3) the electronics are designed to ensure that the intrinsic detector noise is the limiting factor for system performance. For WFIRST, the detector arrays operate at 90 to 100 K, the detector control and data acquisition functions are performed by a custom ASIC at 150 to 180 K, and the main data processing electronics are at the ambient temperature of the spacecraft, notionally ~300 K. The new ASIC is the main interface between the cryogenic detectors and the warm instrument electronics. Its single-chip design provides basic clocking for most types of hybrid detectors with CMOS ROICs. It includes a flexible but simple-to-program sequencer, with the option of microprocessor control for more elaborate readout schemes that may be data-dependent. All analog biases, digital clocks, and analog-to-digital conversion functions are incorporated and are connected to the nearby detectors with a short cable that can provide thermal isolation. The interface to the warm electronics is simple and robust through multiple LVDS channels. It also includes features that support parallel operation of multiple ASICs to control detectors that may have more capability or requirements than can be supported by a single chip.

Raytheon Vision Systems (RVS) has a long history of providing state of the art infrared sensor chip assemblies (SCAs) for the astronomical community. This paper will provide an update of RVS capabilities for the community not only for the infrared wavelengths but also in the visible wavelengths as well. Large format infrared detector arrays are now available that meet the demanding requirements of the low background scientific community across the wavelength spectrum. These detector arrays have formats from 1k x 1k to as large as 8k x 8k with pixel sizes ranging from 8 to 27 μm. Focal plane arrays have been demonstrated with a variety of detector materials: SiPiN, HgCdTe, InSb, and Si:As IBC. All of these detector materials have demonstrated low noise and dark current, high quantum efficiency, and excellent uniformity. All can meet the high performance requirements for low-background within the limits of their respective spectral and operating temperature ranges.

Low light level and high-speed image sensors as required for space applications can suffer from a decrease in the signal to noise ratio (SNR) due to the photon-starved environment and limitations of the sensor’s readout noise. The SNR can be increased by the implementation of Time Delay Integration (TDI) as it allows photoelectrons from multiple exposures to be summed in the charge domain with no added noise. Electron Multiplication (EM) can further improve the SNR and lead to an increase in device performance. However, both techniques have traditionally been confined to Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) due to the efficient charge transfer required. With the increase in demand for CMOS sensors with equivalent or superior functionality and performance, this paper presents findings from the characterisation of a low voltage EMCCD in a CMOS process using advanced design features to increase the electron multiplying gain. By using the CMOS process, it is possible to increase chip integration and functionality and achieve higher readout speeds and reduced pixel size. The presented characterisation results include analysis of the photon transfer curve, the dark current, the electron multiplying gain and analysis of the parameters’ dependence on temperature and operating voltage.

A high-performance temperature controller board has been produced for the ARC Generation-3 CCD controller. It contains two 9W temperature servo loops and four temperature input channels and is fully programmable via the ARC API and OWL data acquisition program. PI-loop control is implemented in an on-board micro. Both diode and RTD sensors can be used. Control and telemetry data is sent via the ARC backplane although a USB-2 interface is also available. Further functionality includes hardware timers and high current drivers for external shutters and calibration LEDs, an LCD display, a parallel i/o port, a pressure sensor interface and an uncommitted analogue telemetry input.

Noise modeling of an E2V CCD231 suggested that a weighted double correlated sampler (DCDS) processor could offer small noise improvements at low pixel rates. The model was used to produce synthetic video waveforms that were then processed at various ADC frequencies and analogue bandwidths to identify the best weighting strategy and preamplifier design. An FPGA-based DCDS controller was then built, first to measure the actual CCD noise spectrum and then to verify the earlier theoretical results.

For future space missions that are visiting hostile electron radiation environments, such as ESA’s JUICE mission, it is important to understand the effects of electron irradiation on silicon devices. This paper outlines a study to validate and improve upon the Non-Ionising Energy Loss (NIEL) model for high energy electrons in silicon using Charge Coupled Devices (CCD), CMOS Imaging Sensors (CIS) and PIPS photodiodes. Initial results of radiation effects in an e2v technologies CCD47-20 after irradiation to 10 krad of 1 MeV electrons are presented with future results and analysis to be presented in future publications.