Previous research has presented work on sensor requirements, specifications, and testing, to evaluate the feasibility of increasing autonomous vehicle system speeds. Discussions included the theoretical background for determining sensor requirements, and the basic test setup and evaluation criteria for comparing existing and prototype sensor designs. This paper will present and discuss the continuation of this work. In particular, this paper will focus on analyzing the problem via a real-world comparison of various sensor technology testing results, as opposed to previous work that utilized more of a theoretical approach. LADAR/LIDAR, radar, visual, and infrared sensors are considered in this research. Results are evaluated against the theoretical, desired perception specifications. Conclusions for utilizing a suite of perception sensors, to achieve the goal of doubling ground vehicle speeds, is also discussed.

Commercial Lidar often focus on reporting the range associated with the strongest laser return pulse, first return pulse, or last return pulse. This technique works well when observing discrete objects separated by a distance greater than the laser pulse length. However, multiple reflections due to more closely layered objects produce overlapping laser return pulses. Resolving the multi-layered object ranges in the resulting complex waveforms is the subject of this paper. A laboratory setup designed to investigate the laser return pulse produced by multi-layered objects is described along with a comparison of a simulated laser return pulse and the corresponding digitized laser return pulse. Variations in the laboratory setup are used to assess different strategies for resolving multi-layered object ranges and how this additional information can be applied to detecting objects partially obscured in vegetation.

Today, assistive robots are being introduced into human environments at an increasing rate. Human environments are highly cluttered and dynamic, making it difficult to foresee all necessary capabilities and pre-program all desirable future skills of the robot. One approach to increase robot performance is semi-autonomous operation, allowing users to intervene and guide the robot through difficult tasks. To this end, robots need intuitive Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) that support fine motion control without overwhelming the operator. In this study we evaluate the performance of several interfaces that balance autonomy and teleoperation of a mobile manipulator for accomplishing several household tasks. Our proposed HMI framework includes teleoperation devices such as a tablet, as well as physical interfaces in the form of piezoresistive pressure sensor arrays. Mobile manipulation experiments were performed with a sensorized KUKA youBot, an omnidirectional platform with a 5 degrees of freedom (DOF) arm. The pick and place tasks involved navigation and manipulation of objects in household environments. Performance metrics included time for task completion and position accuracy.

Poly(3,4-ethyle- nedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) or PEDOT:PSS is a flexible polymer which exhibits piezo-resistive properties when subjected to structural deformation. PEDOT:PSS has a high conductivity and thermal stability which makes it an ideal candidate for use as a pressure sensor. Applications of this technology includes whole body robot skin that can increase the safety and physical collaboration of robots in close proximity to humans. In this paper, we present a finite element model of strain gauge touch sensors which have been 3D-printed onto Kapton and silicone substrates using Electro-Hydro-Dynamic ink-jetting. Simulations of the piezoresistive and structural model for the entire packaged sensor was carried out using COMSOLR , and compared with experimental results for validation. The model will be useful in designing future robot skin with predictable performances.

As the use of robots increases for tasks that require human-robot interactions, it is vital that robots exhibit and understand human-like cues for effective communication. In this paper, we describe the implementation of object tracking capability on Philip K. Dick (PKD) android and a gaze tracking algorithm, both of which further robot capabilities with regard to human communication. PKD’s ability to track objects with human-like head postures is achieved with visual feedback from a Kinect system and an eye camera. The goal of object tracking with human-like gestures is twofold: to facilitate better human-robot interactions and to enable PKD as a human gaze emulator for future studies. The gaze tracking system employs a mobile eye tracking system (ETG; SensoMotoric Instruments) and a motion capture system (Cortex; Motion Analysis Corp.) for tracking the head orientations. Objects to be tracked are displayed by a virtual reality system, the Computer Assisted Rehabilitation Environment (CAREN; MotekForce Link). The gaze tracking algorithm converts eye tracking data and head orientations to gaze information facilitating two objectives: to evaluate the performance of the object tracking system for PKD and to use the gaze information to predict the intentions of the user, enabling the robot to understand physical cues by humans.

This paper deals with the design, the modeling and the simulation of two electrical circuits devoted to kinetic piezoelectric energy harvesters for powering distributed control cells. Two schemes are proposed, analyzed and discussed: the first is a based on classical electrical stages, and the second integrates a novel multiplier/rectifier stage which permits to reduce the voltage loss. Simulation and experimental tests are carried out and demonstrate the advantage of the second scheme relative to the first one.

This paper compares between three different input shaping feedforward techniques, traditional (TIS), extra insensitive (EI), and modified input shaping (MIS), to reduce the vibration of a flexible link QUANSER system. The main challenge is that the system under test is an underactuated system: it has one input and two outputs. This makes the application of the input shaping techniques not utilizable directly. We therefore first propose to use a variable change at the output in order to make the process equivalent to a monovariable system without modification of the behavior and of the objective of the control. The experimental tests demonstrate the efficiency of the technique and the different results from the three control techniques are compared and discussed. It comes out that EI shapers are the most efficient in term of robustness. MIS shaper has a shorter length than that of a corresponding TIS shaper; however both shapers have the same ability of vibration suppression. Also MIS scheme is easier than the traditional scheme because the numerical optimization is unnecessary in the design of the MIS shaper. MIS shaper has an advantage over a TIS corresponding shaper in being capable of suppressing multimode of vibration.

This paper presents the design, the static modeling and the performances simulation of a five degrees of freedom precise positioner. Based on piezoelectric stack actuators, the positioner is able to perform high resolution x-y-z linear motions and angular motions about x and about y axes. After presenting the design, the static modeling is carried out in order to understand the functioning of the positioner. The simulation of the model is afterwards carried out to estimate the ranges of motions that it can perform. The positioner is very promising in various applications that require dexterity and high resolution displacement such as in images scanning with atomic force microscopes, in micromanipulation or microassembly, etc.

Several high aspect ratio nanostructures have been made by capillary force directed self-assembly including polymeric nanofiber air-bridges, trampoline-like membranes, microsphere-beaded nanofibers, and intermetallic nanoneedles. Arrays of polymer air-bridges form in seconds by simply hand brushing a bead of polymeric liquid over an array of micropillars. The domination of capillary force that is thinning unstable capillary bridges leads to uniform arrays of nanofiber air-bridges. Similarly, arrays of vertically oriented Ag2Ga nanoneedles have been formed by dipping silvercoated arrays of pyramidal silicon into melted gallium. Force-displacement measurements of these structures are presented. These nanostructures, especially when compressively or torsionally buckled, have extremely low stiffnesses, motion due to thermal fluctuations that is relatively easily detected, and the ability to move great distances for very small changes in applied force. Nanofibers with bead-on-a-string structure, where the beads are micron diameter and loaded with magnetic iron oxide (maghemite), are shown to be simply viewable under optical microscopes, have micronewton/ m stiffness, and have ultralow torsional stiffnesses enabling the bead to be rotated numerous revolutions without breaking. Combination of these high aspect ratio structures with stretched elastomers offer interesting possibilities for robotic actuation and locomotion. Polydimethylsiloxane loaded with nanomaterials, e.g. nanotubes, graphene or MoS2, can be efficiently heated with directed light. Heating produces considerable force through the thermoelastic effect, and this force can be used for continuous translation or to trigger reversible elastic buckling of the nanostructures. The remote stimulation of motion with light provides a possible mechanism for producing cooperative behavior between swarms of semiautonomous nanorobots.

In order to control neural prosthetics by recording signals from peripheral nerves with the required specificity, high density electrode arrays that can be easily implanted on very small peripheral nerves (50μm-500μm) are needed. Interfacing with these small nerves is surgically challenging due to their size and fragile nature. To address this problem, a Flexible MicroChannel Electrode Array for interfacing with small diameter peripheral nerves and nerve fascicles was developed. The electrochemical characterization and electrophysiological recordings from the common peroneal nerve of a rat are presented along with demonstration of the surgical ease-of-use of the array.

This paper deals with the control of a two degrees of freedom (2-DOF) piezoelectric cantilever actuator which is characterized by badly damped oscillations, hysteresis nonlinearity and cross-couplings. First, a feedforward control scheme based on the zero placement technique is introduced to annihilate the oscillations. Then a disturbance observer and a disturbance compensator are introduced to reduce the effects of low frequencies phenomena (hysteresis and creep) which were approximated by a fictive disturbance. Finally an output feedback scheme based on the linear quadratic regulator is added in order to reduce the cross-couplings effects to improve the tracking performances, and eventually to add robustness. Experiments were carried out and confirm the predicted performances.

In this paper we report on analysis toward identifying design requirements for an Adaptive Robotic Nursing Assistant (ARNA). Specifically, the paper focuses on application requirements for ARNA, envisioned as a mobile assistive robot that can navigate hospital environments to perform chores in roles such as patient sitter and patient walker. The role of a sitter is primarily related to patient observation from a distance, and fetching objects at the patient’s request, while a walker provides physical assistance for ambulation and rehabilitation. The robot will be expected to not only understand nurse and patient intent but also close the decision loop by automating several routine tasks. As a result, the robot will be equipped with sensors such as distributed pressure sensitive skins, 3D range sensors, and so on. Modular sensor and actuator hardware configured in the form of several multi-degree-of-freedom manipulators, and a mobile base are expected to be deployed in reconfigurable platforms for physical assistance tasks. Furthermore, adaptive human-machine interfaces are expected to play a key role, as they directly impact the ability of robots to assist nurses in a dynamic and unstructured environment. This paper discusses required tasks for the ARNA robot, as well as sensors and software infrastructure to carry out those tasks in the aspects of technical resource availability, gaps, and needed experimental studies.

A new piezoelectric actuator with collocated sensor is designed, modeled and simulated. The structure has three piezoelectric layers where the two external layers serve for the actuation by a convenient application of electrical potentials, and the middle layer serves as the sensor. After presenting the principle of the structure, a model is developed for the actuator and as well as for the sensor. Then simulation is carried out to evaluate their performances. The novel structure is very promising for applications that require control and automation, especially in situations where the use of sensors is unfeasible or difficult.

The aim of this paper is to present a novel resonant multi-axis force sensor with applications in robotics. A resonant force sensor is characterized by the use of a frequency output signal to estimate the applied forces, instead of using its amplitude as it is often the case for the other existing technologies used in robotics. The advantages of resonant force sensing for robotics are discussed, especially for the safety requirements in the collaborative field. We extend our analysis to show the main similarities and differences between more classical sensors (based on strain gages for instance) and resonant ones, with a focus on their design. More specifically, we detail the way the design of the sensitive element, which essentially transduces the applied forces into frequencies, plays a major role on its performances.

Digital switches are commonly used for detecting surface contact and limb-position limits in robotics. The typical momentary-contact digital switch is a mechanical device made from metal springs, designed to connect with a rigid printed circuit board (PCB). However, flexible printed circuits are taking over from the rigid PCB in robotics because the circuits can bend while carrying signals and power through moving joints. This project is motivated by a previous work where an array of surface-mount momentary contact switches on a flexible circuit acted as an all-digital shape sensor compatible with the power resources of energy harvesting systems. Without a rigid segment, the smallest commercially-available surface-mount switches would detach from the flexible circuit after several bending cycles, sometimes violently. This report describes a low-cost, conductive fiber based method to integrate electromechanical switches into flexible circuits and other soft, bendable materials. Because the switches are digital (on/off), they differ from commercially-available continuous-valued bend/flex sensors. No amplification or analog-to-digital conversion is needed to read the signal, but the tradeoff is that the digital switches only give a threshold curvature value. Boundary conditions on the edges of the flexible circuit are key to setting the threshold curvature value for switching. This presentation will discuss threshold-setting, size scaling of the design, automation for inserting a digital switch into the flexible circuit fabrication process, and methods for reconstructing a shape from an array of digital switch states.

Upper limb prosthetics are currently operated using several electromyography sensors mounted on an amputee’s residual limb. In order for any prosthetic driving interface to be widely adopted, it needs to be responsive, lightweight, and out of the way when not being used. In this paper we discuss the possibility of replacing such electrodes with fingernail optical sensor systems mounted on the sound limb. We present a prototype device that can detect pinch gestures and communicate with the prosthetic system. The device detects the relative position of fingers to each other by measuring light transmitted via tissue. Applications are not limited to prosthetic control, but can be extended to other human-machine interfaces.

Robots are starting to transition from the confines of the manufacturing floor to homes, schools, hospitals, and highly dynamic environments. As, a result, it is impossible to foresee all the probable operational situations of robots, and preprogram the robot behavior in those situations. Among human-robot interaction technologies, haptic communication is an intuitive physical interaction method that can help define operational behaviors for robots cooperating with humans. Multimodal robotic skin with distributed sensors can help robots increase perception capabilities of their surrounding environments.

Electro-Hydro-Dynamic (EHD) printing is a flexible multi-modal sensor fabrication method because of its direct printing capability of a wide range of materials onto substrates with non-uniform topographies. In past work we designed interdigitated comb electrodes as a sensing element and printed piezoresistive strain sensors using customized EHD printable PEDOT:PSS based inks. We formulated a PEDOT:PSS derivative ink, by mixing PEDOT:PSS and DMSO. Bending induced characterization tests of prototyped sensors showed high sensitivity and sufficient stability.

In this paper, we describe SkinCells, robot skin sensor arrays integrated with electronic modules. 4x4 EHD-printed arrays of strain sensors was packaged onto Kapton sheets and silicone encapsulant and interconnected to a custom electronic module that consists of a microcontroller, Wheatstone bridge with adjustable digital potentiometer, multiplexer, and serial communication unit. Thus, SkinCell’s electronics can be used for signal acquisition, conditioning, and networking between sensor modules. Several SkinCells were loaded with controlled pressure, temperature and humidity testing apparatuses, and testing results are reported in this paper.