The global security environment in the near future will feature accelerating, and possibly momentous, changes in the international system. The large-scale trends in this scenario are - the increasing globalization (with both beneficial and disruptive side effects); - the quickening pace of technological innovation; - the accelerating proliferation of mass destruction technologies; - the growing capacities of non-state actors relative to nation-states; - the persistence of corrosive regional, ethnic, and religious conflicts and - the increasing resource scarcity and environment degradation. Thus, the strategic global security environment with its impact on our security of the future will be characterized by continued and possibly increased instability and the potential for catalytic events.

The utility of military mid-IR lasers, particularly in the area of countermeasures, is well understood and practical laser systems have been fielded which currently provide protection to a wide number of military platform types. Technical performance, efficiency and power for these lasers, has driven current production designs to utilise diode pumped solid state lasers (DPSSLs) with wavelength conversion through non-linear crystals. In this paper, we review the development of laser technologies which have potential to form the basis of the next generation of IRCM lasers, in particular, fibrepumped solid state lasers, optically pumped semiconductor lasers (OPSLs) and quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). Moreover, this review will focus on the relative merits of the technologies for engineering and productionisation of a military laser system, and address those issues most relevant for design and manufacture for the military environment. These include not only technical performance, power and efficiency, but also thermal management, mass, volume, cost and overall complexity for manufacture.

Laser weapon is currently considered as tactical as well as strategic beam weapons, and is considered as a part of a general layered defense system against ballistic missiles and short-range rockets. This kind of weapon can disable or destroy military targets or incoming objects used by small groups of terrorists or countries, at the speed of light. Laser weapon is effective at long or short distances, owing to beam's unique characteristics such as narrow bandwidth, high brightness, coherent both in time and space, and it travels at the speed of light. Unlike kinetic weapon, laser weapon converts the energy stored in an electromagnetic laser beam into a large amount of heat aimed on a small area spot at the skin of the missile, usually close to the liquid fuel storage tank, warhead case or engine area, following by a temperature increase and finally-catastrophic failure by material ablation or melt. The usefulness of laser light as a weapon has been studied for decades but only in recent years became feasible. There are two types of lasers being used: gas lasers and solid state lasers, including fiber lasers. All these types of lasers will be discussed below.

Results are presented for generation of visible and mid-IR output using a common fibre-based laser pump source. This source comprised a master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA) configuration incorporating a semiconductor seed source. Operation in the nanosecond and picosecond range is possible via use of the appropriate seed source. The MOPA is capable of generating 100 W average power in an output beam with an M2 of 1.1. Here the MOPA was operated in the nanosecond regime, using 100 ns seed pulses at a pulse repetition frequency of 100 kHz. 40 W each of pump power was available for a frequency doubling and an OPO stage. 9.8 W of green light was generated in an output beam with an M² of 1.2; using a degenerate PPLN OPO 12.7 W of broadband mid-IR output, with a FWHM linewidth in excess of 170 nm, was generated.

Advances in ultra-short pulse laser technology have resulted in commercially available laser systems capable of generating high peak powers >1GW in tabletop systems. This opens the prospect of generating very wide spectral emissions with a combination of non-linear optical effects in photonic crystal fibres to produce supercontinuua in systems that are readily accessible to military applications. However, military remote sensing rarely requires bandwidths spanning two octaves and it is clear that efficient systems require controlled spectral emission in relevant bands. Furthermore, the limited spectral responsivity of focal plane arrays may impose further restriction on the usable spectrum. A recent innovation which temporally encodes a spectrum using group velocity dispersion allows detection with a photodiode, opening the prospect for high speed hyperspectral sensing and imaging. At the opposite end of the power spectrum, ultra-low power remote sensing using time-correlated single photon counting (SPC) has reduced the laser power requirement and demonstrated remote sensing over 5km during daylight with repetition rates of ~10MHz with ps pulses. Recent research has addressed uncorrelated SPC and waveform transmission to increase data rates for absolute rangefinding whilst avoiding range aliasing. This achievement opens the prospect of combining SPC with high repetition rate temporal encoding of supercontinuua to realise practical hyperspectral remote sensing lidar. The talk will present an overview of these technologies and present a concept which combines them into a single system for high-speed hyperspectral imaging and remote sensing.

In recent years, much advance in the field of high-power femtosecond laser technology has been made. The high pulse power of femtosecond laser systems leads to various interesting phenomena, such as a very high power density and the formation of a plasma in the propagation medium, which is usually air. The possible application of femtosecond lasers for infrared countermeasure (CM) applications, other than direct illumination of the detector, was suggested by several authors. The goal of these countermeasures is to divert missiles from their interception course. We quantitatively examined several suggested CM applications of femtosecond lasers from the literature. Our analyses show that application of femtosecond laser beams for dazzling of missile seeker heads is not in any way promising, neither via white-light generation in the ultra-short laser pulses nor via glowing plasma. In both these cases the generated light intensity is too low to successfully compete with the signal of a typical target. Taking into account literature reports, we conclude that the most promising application of femtosecond laser beams in the field of countermeasure applications seems to be related to inducing damage of the optical components of the seeker system.

The generation of tunable mid-infrared (MIR) laser radiation in the spectral range from 4 μm to 5 μm by nonlinear frequency-conversion of laser pulses in periodically poled Lithium niobate (PPLN) is investigated. Results of several experiments including nanosecond-, picosecond- and femtosecond- laser systems are presented and the potential and limitations of PPLN as nonlinear material for the MIR frequency-conversion are discussed.

High power broad area diode lasers generate the optical energy in all high performance, high power laser systems, either directly or as pump sources for fiber or solid state lasers. Advances in the spectral and spatial brightness of these diode lasers are essential for further increases in system performance. Recent development work at the Ferdinand-Braun- Institut für Höchstfrequenztechnik has lead to significant improvements in diode laser performance. Our ongoing broad area laser research programs, for example, seek to increase the peak reliable output power (in CW, QCW and short pulse regimes), minimize the vertical and lateral far field emission angles, narrow the spectral line width of the emission and increase the power conversion efficiency. Wavelengths between 800 nm and 1100 nm were investigated, with development work focused on specific applications. We present a summary of this research and discuss how performance can be further improved.

High-power diode lasers in the mid-infrared wavelength range between 1.8μm and 2.3μm have emerged new possibilities either for direct military applications or as efficient pump sources for laser sources in the 2-4μm wavelength range for infrared countermeasures. GaSb based diode lasers are naturally predestinated for this wavelength range and offer clear advantages in comparison to InP based diode lasers in terms of output power and wall-plug efficiency. We will present results on different MBE grown (AlGaIn)(AsSb) quantum-well diode laser single emitters and linear laser arrays, the latter consisting of 19 emitters on a 1cm long bar, emitting at different wavelengths between 1.8μm and 2.3μm. Single emitters have resonator lengths between 1.0 and 1.5mm and stripe widths between 90μm and 200μm. Laser bars with 20% and 30% fill factors have been processed. For single emitters the electro-optical behaviour, beam quality and wavelength tunability have been investigated in detail. For diode laser bars mounted either on actively or passively cooled heat sinks by Indium or AuSn solder, more than 20W at 1.9μm in continuous-wave mode have been achieved at a heat sink temperature of 20°C resulting in maximum wall-plug efficiencies of 30%. Even at 2.2μm more than 16W have been measured, impressively demonstrating the potential of GaSb based diode lasers well beyond wavelengths of 2μm. Application driven fiber coupled single emitter based modules with 600mW as well as fiber coupled bar based modules with 20W have been realized.

We present our latest results on the development of high power, high efficiency room temperature quantum cascade lasers. Strain-balanced, InP-based quantum cascade structures, designed for light emission at 4.6 μm using a new non-resonant extraction design approach, were grown by molecular beam epitaxy and processed as buried heterostructure lasers. Maximum single-ended continuous-wave optical power of 3 W was obtained at 293 K for devices with stripe dimensions of 5 mm by 11.6 μm mounted on diamond submounts. Corresponding maximum wallplug efficiency and threshold current density were measured to be 12.7% and 0.86 kA/cm². 7 mm-long, 8.5 μm-wide devices mounted on aluminum nitride submounts with optimized reflectivity coatings on the output facet emitted 2.9 W under the same conditions and 1.2 W in uncooled pulsed operation. Leveraging this research, we developed fully packaged, air-cooled, table-top turn-key laser systems delivering in excess of 2 W of collimated continuous-wave radiation. The high performance and level of device integration make these quantum cascade lasers the primary choice for various defense and security applications, including directional infrared countermeasures, mid-wave infrared illuminators and free space optical communications.

Target tracking and laser-based pointing from airborne platforms can be degraded significantly by the propagation environment around an airborne platform including zones of severe turbulence generated by rotor downwash and engine exhausts. This is the topic of the EDA study group ERG 108.019 on "Laser beam propagation and imaging through severe environments". This paper reports on experiments on optical propagation in the vicinity of a plume of a scaled down jet engine, performed by this co-operation group. The group is also working on methods for estimating the extent of the turbulence effects on the tracking and pointing performance under these conditions.

We report on the concept, realization and performance data of infrared semiconductor laser modules serving as compact and robust laser sources for a Directed Infrared Countermeasures (DIRCM) system. While the 2-2.5 μm atmospheric transmission window is covered by a GaSb-based optically pumped semiconductor disk laser (OPSDL), delivering a continuous-wave (cw) or temporally modulated output of ≥ 1 W with a high beam quality (M² < 3), an external cavity (EC) quantum cascade (QC) laser module is used to cover the 4.5-5 μm spectral range. The EC-QC laser concept allows efficient spectral beam combining of the output of several QC laser located side-by-side on the same semiconductor chip, while preserving the high-quality output beam of a single emitter. Both the OPSDL and the EC-QC laser have been integrated into rugged laser modules, comprising also all necessary power supply and control electronics, ready for use in field trials.

We report on the development and characteristics of infrared solid state laser as compact and robust light sources for Directed Infrared Countermeasures (DIRCM). DIRCM against infrared missile seekers requires wavelength tunable laser sources. When adding an optical parametric oscillator to a pump laser source, it is possible to cover the 2-5 μm wavelength transmission windows. For more than five years, CILAS has developed critical technologies for the development of a laser source adapted for DIRCM application. This includes: The choice of the crystals, the optical coatings in band II, the thermal management and an optimized oscillator configuration insensitive to repetition rate variation in a wide range. The scope of this presentation is to recall performances of the technologies developed and to present the technical base line of our laser concept. This work is supported by the French MOD (DGA).

To be effective a DIRCM must direct a Laser beam exceeding a certain power level towards the approaching missile. This power level inevitably leads to a potential laser hazard mainly regarding the eye safety of people potentially hit by the Laser beam. To evaluate this hazard the IEC 60825-1 is a well established international standard. This leads to the definition of a laser safety zone around the active DIRCM which can be as large as a few hundred meters. Therefore it cannot be excluded, that people are present within this zone. This Laser hazard is also a major topic for a civil or military DIRCM system certification. In this report we analyze the impact of various DIRCM designs on this safety zone as well as the resulting Laser hazard footprint at takeoff and landing. Also some technical means to make a DIRCM system inherently eye safe are discussed. As a result we come the conclusion that an eye safe DIRCM is possible, if appropriate measures are taken throughout the DIRCM system design.

The proliferation of early generation Man-Portable Air-Defence (MANPAD) weapon worldwide results in a significant threat to all aircraft. To develop successful countermeasures to the MANPAD a more detailed understanding of the factors affecting the missile engagement is needed. This paper discusses the use of CounterSim, a missile engagement and countermeasure simulation software tool, to model such scenarios. The work starts by analysing simple engagements of a first generation MANPAD against a fast jet with no countermeasures being employed. The engagement simulations cover typical MANPAD ranges and aircraft altitudes quoted in open source literature. From this set of base runs, individual engagements are chosen for further analysis. These may have resulted in hits, misses or near misses. At each time interval in the simulation the aircraft and missile velocities are used to calculate a projected point of closest approach. This is then compared with the simulated impact point. The difference is defined as the ▵d error and plots are produced for hits, misses and near misses. Features of the ▵d error plots are investigated to gain insights into the potential countermeasure capability. Finally, the analysis of the ▵d error plots is used to investigate the possibility of replicating the factors in a simulation that produce a miss through a pre-emptive flare deployment.

With the ever present threat of MANPADS throughout the world the protection of civil aircraft is a desirable capability that has special requirements in terms of certification, safety, logistics, affordability, environmental impact and exportability. The Civil Aircraft Missile Protection System (CAMPS), which includes the CIV-IR (infrared) leaf-based pyrophoric (not pyrotechnic) expendable countermeasure, is a system designed to meet these requirements. This paper presents the operating aspects of the decoy, including discussion of design features necessary to ensure safety both on the ground and in flight and assure successful deployment. The characteristics of the CIV-IR have been measured, both on static single leaves in the laboratory and on deployed packs in field tests and aircraft trials. These measured properties have been used in engagement modelling and simulation to assess the level of protection that can be afforded to commercial airliners against generation 1 and 2 MANPADS threats. Aircraft flight trials with ground based seekers have also been carried out to validate the modelling work. These combine to define the deployment patterns necessary for a successful seduction of the MANPAD.

The paper describes a methodology for characterizing the signatures of targets for Imaging Infrared (IIR) missiles and generating dynamic missile engagement scenarios using MathWorks tools (primarily MATLAB and Simulink). The over-all objective of this work was to develop high fidelity physics-based simulations of the attack of IIR missiles on targets that are using various types of countermeasures for survivability. While the methodology has been implemented in products used for analyses of both ship and main battle tank protection this paper focuses on the ship application. The methodology involves a multi-step process. First the infrared signatures of the objects are characterized using a graphical tool that enables the user to select individual or groups of surfaces on the objects (targets and countermeasures) and specify their surface temperatures and spectral emissivities. Second, a dynamic IR scene generator creates the scene as viewed by the missile's seeker. Then an imaging IR seeker, using the option of several tracking algorithms, discriminates the target. Finally, the inclusion of dynamic models for missile guidance, aerodynamics and propulsion together with signal propagation enable the closing of the loop in the missile's fly-out. The simulation dynamically computes the distance between each surface and the missile seeker and uses the specified atmospheric attenuation profile to produce a simulated IR image at the seeker. This is processed using several optional tracking algorithms to generate steering signals. This process is repeated every time-step of the simulation and determines the trajectory of the missile and the hit or miss of the missile at engagement completion. The paper includes the following topics: characterizing IR signatures, generating dynamic IR scenes, simulating representative close-loop missile fly-out engagements, evaluating performance and running simulation batches.

The knowledge of the optical properties of decoy flares such as peak intensity, rise time and function time as well as the trajectory after being ejected are crucial to ensure the decoy effectiveness and the protection of the aircraft. The Countermeasures Laboratory of the "Institute of technology Marañosa" (ITM) has performed a measurement campaign during the spring of 2008 to determine the IR decoy signature in both wind tunnel test and in-flight conditions. Both tests are complementary because of the different test conditions that influence the behavior of the flare burn profile. Deviations were found between two sets of data due to high wind-stream and high altitudes. Comparison of both sets of results allows extrapolating the measurements in stationary conditions to that of a real scenario. Besides, these comparisons are useful to validate IR flare emission simulation software. The radiant intensity and burn time was calculated trough a sequence of calibrated images. The effect of the influent parameter on the emitted intensity were also Identified and measured. Analysis of in-flight measurements took into account the altitude, aerodynamic conditions, angle aspect and of course the wind speed. Sky radiance and atmospheric transmittance were also calculated. The radiation measurements of IR flares on flight and wind tunnel test are performed with a MWIR camera equipped with a 350mm focal length lens. Besides the camera a Circular Variable Filter (CVF) spectrorradiometer was used for the tunnel test. For the field trial an automatic tracking system of targets were used in order to determine the flare trajectory.

This paper presents the results of a preliminary investigation of optimal threat evasion strategies for improving the survivability of rotorcraft under attack by rocket propelled grenades (RPGs). The basis of this approach is the application of inverse simulation techniques pioneered for simulation of aggressive helicopter manoeuvres to the RPG engagement problem. In this research, improvements in survivability are achieved by computing effective evasive manoeuvres. The first step in this process uses the missile approach warning system camera (MAWS) on the aircraft to provide angular information of the threat. Estimates of the RPG trajectory and impact point are then estimated. For the current flight state an appropriate evasion response is selected then realised via inverse simulation of the platform dynamics. Results are presented for several representative engagements showing the efficacy of the approach.

We used pattern-recognition-algorithms performance as a measurement standard for laser-dazzled images. A black and white CCD-camera observed a scene containing different geometrical patterns, which had to be recognized by the algorithm. The camera was dazzled by a nanosecond frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser. Dazzling conditions were variable in laser repetition rate, pulse energy, geometrical forms size and position relative to the laser spot. We implemented algorithms based on edge detection, which locate areas with similar forms compared with a reference symbol, using either a degree of correlation assessment or a Fourier descriptors quantitative analysis. We also characterized the dazzled area size in the image. Thanks to a cross analysis of both criteria, we succeeded in quantitatively assessing the influence of laser-dazzling on the performances of the algorithms. We point out the key role of the effective distance between a geometrical form and the dazzled area in the image on the computed degree of correlation or Fourier descriptor value of this form. The analysis of these quantitative results contributes to the better understanding of laser-dazzling, which can be useful to design efficient means to protect imaging systems.

Modeling and simulation fidelity varies considerably throughout the design process, from simple performance models used for requirements capture through to radiometrically correct synthetic environments for hardware-in-the-loop final acceptance testing. As complex systems engineering design is intrinsically iterative, having a framework to integrate models of different fidelity is extremely useful. In this paper, a new hierarchical, agent-based simulation engine is presented and then applied to the design of two airborne remote-sensing systems, forward mounted multi-mode radar and an electro-optic countermeasures system.

In order to evaluate the concealment capability of smoke, the Countermeasures Laboratory of the Institute of Technology "Marañosa" (ITM) has done a set of tests for measuring the transmittances of multispectral smoke tins in several bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. The smoke composition based on red phosphorous has been developed and patented by this laboratory as a part of a projectile development. The smoke transmittance was measured by means of thermography as well as spectroradiometry. Black bodies and halogen lamps were used as infrared and visible source of radiation. The measurements were carried out in June of 2008 at the Marañosa field (Spain) with two MWIR cameras, two LWIR cameras, one CCD visible camera, one CVF IR spectroradiometer covering the interval 1.5 to 14 microns and one array silicon based spectroradiometer for the 0.2 to 1.1 μm spectra. The transmittance and dimensions of the smoke screen were characterized in the visible band, MWIR (3 - 5 μm and LWIR (8 - 12 μm) regions. The size of the screen was about 30 meters wide and 5 meters high. The transmittances in the IR bands were about 0.3 and better than 0.1 in the visible one. The screens showed to be effective over the time of persistence for all of the tests. The results obtained from the imaging and non-imaging systems were in good accordance. The meteorological conditions during tests such as the wind speed are determinant for the use of this kind of optical countermeasures.

In recent times the importance of Ladar systems for military applications increases rapidly. Prevalent application in this area is 3D imaging. Conventional 3D scanning systems usually employ mirror-based mechanisms. Often these suffer from bulky architecture and a fixed scanning pattern. In this paper we describe an experimental monostatic Ladar setup with micro-optical bidirectional beam control. This system offers certain advantages like random beam pointing and a compact design due to transmissive optical elements with combined emitter and receiver channel. Our publication depicts the setup of a Ladar demonstrator with micro-optical beam steering at lab-level. The range finding system is based on time-of-flight principle at near infrared wavelength. Due to monostatic configuration a single detector is used for start and stop pulse generation. The beam steering is accomplished with decentred micro-lens arrays, which are driven by a precision alignment system. The micro-optical elements act as entrance and exit aperture simultaneously. The results of laboratory characterization measurements and data evaluations complete our overview of the accomplished work.

Warfare relies on effective, accurate and timely intelligence an especially critical task when conducting a counterinsurgency operation [1]. Simply stated counterinsurgency is an intelligence war. Both insurgents and counterinsurgents need effective intelligence capabilities to be successful. Insurgents and counterinsurgents therefore attempt to create and maintain intelligence networks and fight continuously to neutralize each other's intelligence capabilities [1][2]. In such an environment it is obviously an advantage to target or proactively create opportunities to track and map an insurgent movement. Quickly identifying insurgency intelligence assets (Infiltrators) within a host government's infrastructure is the goal. Infiltrators can occupy various areas of government such as security personnel, national police force, government offices or military units. Intentional Firearm Microstamping offers such opportunities when implemented into firearms. Outfitted within firearms purchased and distributed to the host nation's security forces (civilian and military), Intentional Firearm Microstamping (IFM) marks bullet cartridge casings with codes as they are fired from the firearm. IFM is incorporated onto optimum surfaces with the firearm mechanism. The intentional microstamp tooling marks can take the form of alphanumeric codes or encoded geometric codes that identify the firearm. As the firearm is discharged the intentional tooling marks transfer a code to the cartridge casing which is ejected out of the firearm. When recovered at the scene of a firefight or engagement, the technology will provide forensic intelligence allowing the mapping and tracking of small arms traffic patterns within the host nation or identify insurgency force strength and pinpoint firearm sources, such as corrupt/rogue military units or police force. Intentional Firearm Microstamping is a passive mechanical trace technology that can be outfitted or retrofitted to semiautomatic handguns and military rifles to assist in developing real time intelligence providing a greater level of situational awareness. Proactively Microstamping firearms that are introduced and distributed to the host nation's security forces, it will become easier to track the firearms if they go missing or end up on the black market in the hands of an insurgency. This paper will explain the technology and key attributes of microstamping technology, test data showing its ability to identifying a specific firearm, examples of implementation strategies and to what extent data could be utilized in war zone security and counterinsurgency intelligence operations.

We present a rugged and reliable real-time beam stabilization system which is adapted on a mobile 10" amateur Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope (SCT) to demonstrate the functionality on different ground locations. Recently, the tip/tilt system was tested in horizontal direction on a 130 m free space propagation range. Tip/tilt compensation with a rootmean- squared accuracy better than 0.5 μrad has been confirmed. All system characteristics were measured in relation to metrological conditions and turbulence strength.

The illicit trafficking in small arms is an international problem with grave consequences to those who live in less developed nations. To stop any form of trafficking it is important to ensure the ability to track weapons to their sources, there must be a common international system for the marking and tracing of weapons. Under current international law, states may adopt various different weapons marking systems, complicating the identification of the country-of-origin of a weapon [1]. However, these marking technologies are only good for those firearms that are recovered or captured. By instituting Intentional Firearm Microstamping (IFM) a technology that provides a link to a serial or production build number, by embossing the IFM code on to the cartridge that is fired and ejected at the scene. IFM will provide critical forensic intelligence in regions of conflict by helping to identify patterns, trafficking routes and ultimately shut down illicit arms sources and markets that fuel the violence associated with regional genocide, terrorism and/or insurgency groups within warzones. Intentional Firearm Microstamping (IFM) technology will provide a rapid and accurate cartridge-to-firearm identification process, enabling law enforcement both national and international to quickly pursue international arms dealers and other illicit firearm markets. Intentional Firearm Microstamping (IFM) is a patented technology and trace solution where intentional tooling marks are formed or micromachined onto firearms interior surfaces that come into contact or impact the surfaces of cartridge casings. The IFM tooling marks can take the form of alphanumeric codes or encoded geometric codes, such as a barcode. As the firearm is discharged the intentional tooling marks transfer a code to the cartridge casing before it is ejected out of the firearm. When recovered at the scene of an incident, the intentional firearm microstamped cartridge can indentify a specific firearm, without the need to recover that firearm. This paper will explain the key attributes of Intentional Firearm Microstamping technology; including its implementation and application benefits such as developing border security controls and law enforcement capacity world wide to combat illicit trafficking of firearms to terrorists, gangs and/or fueling regional conflicts. The data generated by IFM will be discussed and its application to spatial and temporal mapping of trafficking patterns and other criminal patterns.