This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 7077, including the Title Page, Copyright information, table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and the Conference Committee listing. The Full Workshop presnentations are included at the end of the FM for Open Access viewing on the Digital Library.

The CHESS A-line 49 pole wiggler produces a total power of 6.6 kW when operating at 5.3 GeV and 200 mA current. Half of this beam is directed into the A2 station operating with both crystal and multilayer optics. The heat load response of the multilayer optics was studied by changing the total power deposited on the first multilayer by varying the slit size. The W/B4C, 300 bi-layers, d=15 Å multilayers with the energy resolution of ΔE/E=0.5% were used in our experiment. The results from identical multilayers deposited on Si and SiC substrates, which differ by a factor of two in thermal conductivity, are presented and compared. The thermal distortions of the first multilayer were measured by using recently developed optical in-situ visualization technique and compared with ANSYS simulations. X-ray measurements of the monochromator throughput and effective source size confirm the results of the optical measurements and ANSYS simulations and demonstrate the superior behavior of SiC-substrate based ML optics under high heat load.

Ion beam sputtering has been applied for polishing, figuring and multilayer coating on silicon and quartz glass substrates for the fabrication of x-ray mirrors. For high-performance x-ray optics extremely low microroughnesses of the substrates have to be achieved. Particularly for low d-spacing multilayers (d = 1...2 nm) even small improvements of the surface quality result in significant performance gains of the mirrors. By ion beam polishing silicon substrate surfaces could be smoothed from 0.18 nm rms to 0.11 nm rms (AFM scan length = 5 μm). Furthermore figuring of spherical substrates into elliptical or parabolic surface contours has been developed and applied. Spherical quartz glass substrates with initial rms roughnesses of 0.73 nm and 0.52 nm show reduced roughnesses after figuring and multilayer coating of 0.26 nm and 0.10 nm using AFM scan lengths of 20 μm and 5 μm, respectively. The testing of the ion beam figured mirrors for the application as parallel beam and focussing optics shows very promising results: The comparison of collimating mirrors, produced either by ion beam figuring or bending, shows very similar x-ray intensities. However, the ion beam figured mirrors open the perspective for further reduced figure errors, improved long-term stability and 2-dimensional focusing.

Rigaku Innovative Technologies (RIT) produces x-ray optics based on multilayer mirrors. A multilayer mirror is deposited on a wafer and mounted on a solid backing plate in an elliptical shape to focus x-rays. The wafer surface imperfections, defects from the multilayer deposition, and figure errors induced by the mounting process result in some focal spot widening for the final optics. An AFM is used in the spatial period range 0.1 - 10 microns, and a "ZYGO" interferometric microscope is used in the spatial period range 1 micron - 5 mm, to study these imperfections determining the influence of each technological step on the focal spot quality. AFM analysis shows dramatically different roughness between 1 x 1 micron and 20 x 20 micron field of view on super-polished substrates from some suppliers and only a little difference from others. A smoothing effect of a multilayer coating at spatial periods less than one micron as well as defects in multilayer coatings have been observed with power spectral density analysis. Machining marks on the surface of wafers are clearly seen at ZYGO microscope pictures. Ray-tracing simulations based on the ZYGO data show the focal spot shape changes due to the figure errors introduced at the step of a multilayer coated wafer mounting and only background scattering with no focal spot widening from defects induced at the step of multilayer deposition.

Current and next-generation light sources, for instance third generation synchrotron sources, FLASH and the future project X-FEL require single-layer and multilayer mirrors with an active optical length of more than one meter. At the GKSS research centre, a new sputtering system for the deposition of single-layer and multilayers has been installed. This new system is able to manufacture mirrors with a maximum deposition length of 1.5m. In this paper we are going to present the first results of this challenging system. The mirror properties are investigated by means of X-ray reflectometry, transmission electron microscopy and interference microscopy. The performance of the mirrors is analyzed, considering X-ray reflectivity, film thickness, micro-roughness and the uniformity of these properties over the whole deposition length. The results will be discussed and compared with former results.

State of the art soft x-ray spectroscopy techniques like Resonant Inelastic X-ray Scattering (RIXS) require diffraction gratings which can provide extremely high spectral resolution of 10⁵-10⁶. This problem may be addressed with a sliced multilayer grating with an ultra-high groove density (up to 50,000 mm^-1) proposed in the recent publication [Voronov, D. L., et al., Proc. SPIE 6705, 67050E (2007)]. It has been suggested to fabricate such a grating by deposition of a soft x-ray multilayer on a substrate which is a blazed saw-tooth grating (echellette) with low groove density. Subsequent polishing applied to the coated grating removes part of the coating and forms an oblique-cut multiline structure that is a sliced multilayer grating. The resulting grating has a short-scale periodicity of lines (bilayers), which is defined by the multilayer period and the oblique-cut angle. We fabricated and tested a Sc/Si multilayer sliced grating suitable for EUV applications, which is a first prototype based on the suggested technique. In order to fabricate an echellette substrate, we used anisotropic KOH etching of a Si wafer. The etching regime was optimized to obtain smooth and flat echellette facets. A Sc/Si multilayer was deposited by dc-magnetron sputtering, and after that it was mechanically polished using a number of diamond pastes. The resulting sliced grating prototype with ~270 nm line period has demonstrated a dispersive ability in the 41-49 nm photon wavelength range with a diffraction efficiency of ~7% for the optimized 38th order assigned to the echellette grating of 10 μm period.

We present the development of a phase compensator for wavefront control of X-rays. The optical device is a 150 mm-long total reflection mirror, the shape of which can be curved by adjusting the bias voltages of 36 piezoelectric ceramic plates attached to the mirror. The mirror surface was smoothed and made flat by elastic emission machining. To achieve a high degree of the accuracy in the controllability of a curved line, a Fizeau interferometer is placed in front of the mirror surface to monitor its shape in the experiment. We will apply this device to the optical system for the realization of sub-10-nm hard X-ray focusing.

The next generation of synchrotrons and free electron laser facilities requires x-ray optical systems with extremely high performance, generally of diffraction limited quality. Fabrication and use of such optics requires adequate, highly accurate metrology and dedicated instrumentation. Previously, we suggested ways to improve the performance of the Long Trace Profiler (LTP), a slope measuring instrument widely used to characterize x-ray optics at long spatial wavelengths. The main way is use of a CCD detector and corresponding technique for calibration of photo-response non-uniformity [J. L. Kirschman, et al., Proceedings of SPIE 6704, 67040J (2007)]. The present work focuses on the performance and characteristics of the upgraded LTP-II at the ALS Optical Metrology Laboratory. This includes a review of the overall aspects of the design, control system, the movement and measurement regimes for the stage, and analysis of the performance by a slope measurement of a highly curved super-quality substrate with less than 0.3 microradian (rms) slope variation.

The application of electronic autocollimators to the deflectometric measurement of synchrotron optics in beamline metrology laboratories is steadily increasing. The main reason for this is the availability of commercial high-resolution autocollimators capable of providing highly stable angle metrology down to aperture sizes of a few millimeters, even for uncoated optical surfaces. The measuring beam of the autocollimator not only provides the straight propagation of light as a natural straightness standard, but also tracing back the angle measurement to primary standards via calibration enables one to measure surface shape without any recourse to material straightness artifacts. The Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) provides the traceability of angle measurements by autocollimators to the radian (rad) - the SI unit of the plane angle - by use of its WMT 220 angle comparator. The fundamental principle of this comparator is the subdivision of the circle, representing an error-free natural standard of 2π rad. It is realized by various self- and cross-calibration methods. Autocollimators are calibrated by direct comparison with this primary standard with standard uncertainties down to 0.003 arcsec (15 nrad). As the aperture sizes of autocollimators decrease, issues such as the transferability / applicability of the calibration to the measurement conditions in the deflectometric set-up become more and more significant. In this paper we are focusing on the investigation of the influence of the distance between the autocollimator and the surface under test on its angle response. Information on the optimized use and accurate calibration of autocollimators for deflectometric applications is provided.

A new ultra-precision profiler has been developed to measure items such as asymmetric and aspheric profiles. In the current study, the normal vectors at each point on the surface are determined by a reflected light beam that returns along exactly the same path as the incident beam. The surface gradients at each point are calculated from the normal vector, and the surface profile is obtained by integrating the gradient. At a previous meeting, we reported that normal vector measured points with submicron accuracy can be determined by a self-calibration method. In this paper, the self-calibration method has been tested and shown to have the capability for surface profile measurement accuracy of nanometer order, using a concave mirror with a radius curvature of 2000 mm. The precise surface profile obtained from a measured normal vector has been studied as a new data analysis method that applies Fourier series expansion with the least-square method. Future development will include the following: the elimination of error propagation due to data analysis from normal vector to surface profile, unique determination of profile from normal vector, and enabling random measuring position of normal vector on the mirror.

The radius of curvature, slope error, surface roughness and associated height distribution and power spectral density of uncoated commercial float glass samples have been measured in our Canadian Light Source Optical Metrology Facility, using our Micromap-570 surface profiler and long trace profilometer. The statistical differences in these parameters have been investigated between the tin and air sides of float glass. The effect of soaking the float glass in sulfuric acid to try to dissolve the tin contamination has also been investigated, and untreated and post-treatment surface roughness measurements compared. We report the results of our studies on these float glass samples.

The Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) is an X-ray Free Electron Laser (FEL) currently under construction at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Coherent X-rays present interesting challenges for the opto-mechanical system that delivers the beam to experiments. One challenge is to limit the effect mirror reflections have on the beam intensity profile at the experiment stations. This imposes stringent requirements on mirror surface figure. A second challenge is that the distance from the mirrors to experiments is much greater than for prior generation x-ray sources. This imposes stringent requirements on mirror pointing resolution and stability. Pointing resolution must be within 100 nano-radians for the furthest experiments, and must be stable throughout the experiment duration. This paper describes the opto-mechanical system being designed for LCLS, and how it rises to these challenges. The design approach and supporting analysis are described, along with experimental results from prototypes.

Over the last decade refractive lenses for monochromatic X-ray radiation have been realized for many different materials by microfabrication technology. All these lens systems are successfully working only for one discrete energy, i.e. the lenses are chromatic. Thus each discrete energy within a certain energy range has a different focal length. While the focal spot size is smaller than a micron for a particular energy at the corresponding focal distance, it increases up to several tens of microns for a larger energy range. We present results of numerical simulations for a new type of lens system which addresses this problem. We are developing achromats by combining different refractive elements of different materials. Via ray-tracing we determine the parameters of the lenses by minimizing the focal spot size for an energy range of about E ± ΔE with ΔE = 15%. Thus the spot size of an energy range can be noticeably reduced compared with conventional refractive (chromatic) lens systems.

Compound refractive lenses (CRL), consisting of a lot number in-line concave microlenses made of low-Z material were studied. Lenses with focal length 109 mm and 41 mm for 8-keV X-rays, microfocus X-ray tube and X-ray CCD camera were used in experiments. Obtained images show intensity distribution of magnified microfocus X-ray source focal spot. Within the experiments, one lens was also used as an objective lens of the X-ray microscope, where the copper anode X-ray microfocus tube served as a source. Magnified images of gold mesh with 5 microns bars were obtained. Theoretical limits of CRL and experimental results are discussed.

Multi-plate crystal cavities consisting of compound refractive lenses were prepared on silicon wafers by lithographic techniques. The crystallographic orientation of the crystal device is the same as that of the two-plate x-ray resonators reported (Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 174801, 2005). X-ray (12 4 0) back diffraction from these monolithic silicon crystal devices showed interference fringes due to cavity resonance through the compound refractive lenses (CRL), but with less pronounced amplitudes. The transmitted beam size through this device is reduced by a factor of 5. Detailed analysis on cavity interference and beam suppression are discussed.

X ray diffraction reveals the nanoscale structure of both tissue and inorganic materials. Different materials can be distinguished and mapped by collecting the diffracted rays at different angles. Conventional diffraction measurements require a pencil beam and hence a small sample area to measure an accurate diffraction angle, so producing a mapped image requires a two dimensional scan. In order to to shorten the collection time for large areas, a slit system was developed. An antiscatter grid was placed in front of the detector to select the desired diffraction angle. This device can potentially be used in a scanning system to map the presence of target materials or in diagnostic radiology to detect cancerous tissues.

Results of the first experiment in which Bragg diffraction of a focused x-ray beam was utilized to obtain depth sensitive structural information are presented. Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) layers of 4.5 to 25 μm thick were studied. The beam was focused by a circular zone plate. A beam stop and an order sorting aperture were used to reduce the contribution of the background radiation into diffracted intensity. Diffraction patterns were recorded by a CCD detector placed in the focus of the zone plate. Spatial distributions of the recorded intensity in the scattering plane revealed variations of the lattice constant within the layers. Incoherent scattering was observed out of the scattering plane thus providing a new method to study diffuse scattering. Computer simulations of the intensity patterns produced by the interface between two layers with the lattice constant mismatch are presented.

Focusing x-ray optics can be used to increase the intensity onto small samples, greatly reducing the data collection time for powder diffraction. Typically, the beam convergence is restricted to avoid loss of resolution since the focused beams broaden the resulting powder diffraction rings. However, the resolution, as defined by the uncertainty in peak location, can be much less than the peak width. Two types of x-ray optics, polycapillary and doubly curved crystals, were used to focus x rays onto standard inorganic powder diffraction samples. Comparisons were made of system resolution and diffracted beam intensity using low power microfocus sources.

Polycrystalline structure of a chemical vapor deposited (CVD) diamond vacuum window was investigated by means of white-beam diffraction. Forward Laue diffraction patterns were recorded using two-dimensional flat panel sensor. A computer aided approximate indexation of the Laue spots was performed based on maximum correlation between observed and directly simulated patterns. Different sets of the diffraction patterns were attributed to the different diamond crystalline grains. Retrieved orientations of the illuminated grains were rather random and average linear dimension of the single grain was about 56-64 μm.

Recently the design of a Laue lens with field of view of 30 arcseconds and for x-rays in the energy range from 100 keV to 1 MeV has been proposed in which mosaic crystals are used as focussing elements. The proper mosaic angular spread is chosen as a compromise between intensity and energy resolution of the Laue lens. In the present work we consider the use of GaAs crystals as optical elements for hard x-ray astronomy. GaAs crystals have essentially the same electron density and lattice spacing as germanium, and are characterized by spontaneous formation of "cellular structures" with dislocations distribution at the boundaries between perfect zones of the crystal. Because of the presence of cellular structures Czochralsky grown GaAs show a natural degree of mosaicity. Several GaAs ingots grown by liquid encapsulating Czochralsky technique have been characterized by high resolution x-ray diffraction. Bragg diffraction profiles have been measured along ingot axes and diameters of doped, undoped or stoichiometry deviated GaAs crystals. Full width at half maximum values ranging from 15 to 40 arcseconds depending on the position were measured close to the proposed 30 arcsecond mosaicity required for the Laue lens. Appropriate growth conditions allow the control of the dislocation density and the modification of cellular structure responsible of the crystal mosaicity so that the possibility of obtaining crystals with a given degree of mosaicity by tuning the LEC growth conditions is proposed.

We present in this theoretical paper a set-up of grazing-angle incidence hard x-ray nanoscope (GIXN), which is the essential part of ultra-high density digital data read-out device. The GIXN consists of the asymmetrically cut single crystal, which is operating like an image magnifier. The X-ray high-resolution diffractive optical lens (zone plate) and spatially resolving detector (CCD camera) are arranged like in classical schemes of the X-ray imaging microscopy. Proposed nanoscope operates based on grazing-angle incidence x-ray backscattering diffraction (GIXB) technique applied in the specular beam suppression mode. Grazing-angle incident X-ray configuration allows the handling of data from very large surface area of the X-ray optical memory disk (X-ROM) and, consequently, the data read-out speed is much faster than in optical data read-out systems.

Hard x-ray point focusing by two crossed multilayer Laue lenses is studied using a full-wave modeling approach. This study shows that for a small numerical aperture, the two consecutive diffraction processes can be decoupled into two independent ones in respective directions. Using this theoretical tool, we investigate adverse effects of various misalignments on the 2D focus profile and discuss the tolerance to them. We also derive simple expressions that describe the required alignment accuracy.

We describe the fabrication of a long mirror for focusing X-ray free electron lasers to nanometer dimension, for the production of high photon density beams. The focusing mirror has an elliptical curved shape with a length of 400 mm and focal length of 550 mm. Electrolytic in-process dressing grinding is used for first-step figuring and elastic emission machining is employed for final figuring and surface smoothing. Figure accuracy with a peak-to-valley height of 2 nm is achieved. A focusing test was performed at BL29XUL of SPring-8 and found the focused beam size to be approximately 75 nm at 15 keV, very similar to the theoretical value.

Aberration effects in curved multilayers for hard X rays are studied using a simple analytical approach. The method is based on geometrical ray tracing including refraction effects up to the first order of the refractive index decrement δ. The interpretation of the underlying equations provides fundamental insight into the focusing properties of these devices. Using realistic values for the multilayer parameters the impact on spot broadening and chromaticity is evaluated. The work is complemented by a comparison with experimental focusing results obtained with a W/B₄C multilayer mirror.

In this work the results on X-ray micro-imaging by means of novel polycapillary optical elements will be presented. To simulate various radiation propagation processes in both single capillary and polycapillary systems, a PolyCAD code was developed. Many experiments have recently revealed the advantage of confocal optical configuration for the fluorescence studies. Moreover, our experimental prototype layout (developped in the INFN - LNF laboratories, Frascati) enables the possibility to obtain μXRF mapping in simultaneous with X-Imaging. The recorded image of an extended sample is limited to 6 μm by the CCD pixel dimensions; the use of a second polycapillary optics in the confocal scheme followed by a SDD detector provides an additional option for elemental studies. A prototype of compact XRF spectrometer with a spatial resolution less than 100 μm has been designed.

As known, Kumakhov optics, or polycapillary optics, is based on the effective passage of X-ray radiation through the bundles of monocapillaries of various configurations; the latter takes place due to the phenomenon of total external reflection of X-rays from the inner capillary walls. In our work the basic characteristics of intense quasi-parallel X-ray polycapillary microbeams from a laboratory source in a scheme of microfocus X-ray tube/polycapillary structure, are investigated theoretically as well as experimentally. Experimental studies are carried out by means of a special automated stand. The received experimental data are compared with the results of computer statistical modeling. Modeling includes of the several theoretical models for various types of deviations of a reflection surface from ideal such as the roughness, waviness and bending. The effect of decrease of full divergence of microbeams near the exit end face of polycapillary system (quasi-decrease of divergence) is found out. But, unlike the observable effects of decrease of local divergence, proposed and discovered in works of Dabagov et al. and described on the base of surface channeling, the given effect can be well enough described within the limits of geometrical optics. Now on the base of Kumakhov optics at the Institute for Roentgen Optics the new generation of devices is developed and created: "laboratory synchrotron", fluorescent spectrometers, reflectometers, diffractometers, X-ray microscopes and combinations of several devices in one.

We have studied the micro x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and 2D- or 3D-XRF analysis in the laboratory by using polycapillary optics. A confocal 3D micro-XRF instrument was applied for solid/liquid interface analysis. 2D elemental maps of x-ray fluorescence for the solid surface of an Fe plate after Cu was deposited by chemical plating were obtained. The 2D images could be taken in the solution. This result suggests that this 3D micro-XRF method is useful for in-situ monitoring of chemical reactions on solid-liquid interfaces. Furthermore, we have reported a new application of polycapillary x-ray optics. Two independent straight polycapillary optics were arranged between the sample and an x-ray energy dispersive detector. X-ray fluorescence emitted from the sample was collimated by the first capillary, and then it was introduced into the second capillary. By adjusting the angle between two capillary optics, only the x-rays totally reflected on the inner wall of the second capillary could be detected by the x-ray detector. This result suggests that we can use these polycapillary optics for x-ray energy filtering optics.

The development of sources and optics has allowed the migration of techniques originally developed for synchrotron beam lines to field, industrial and clinical applications. For example, monochromatic beams produced with synchrotron sources are known to give higher contrast for mammography than clinical broadband sources. However, clinical sources with very narrow energy bandwidth, produced for example with flat monochromator crystals, tend to have limited intensity and field of view. Doubly curved crystal x-ray optics can provide intense focused monochromatic fan beams from laboratory x-ray tube sources. These optics are routinely employed in crystallography and x-ray fluorescence, however, careful analysis is required to assess whether the focused beam creates unacceptable divergence and hence poor spatial resolution in imaging. The intensity and resolution of the focused beam were measured and compared to simulation results. The measurements and simulations were in good agreement, allowing for system design to provide the required resolution. High efficiency collimating optics coupled with diffracting crystals also can produce relatively high intensity and resolution. For both methods, monochromatization occurs before the patient, resulting in a potential dose reduction as well as significant measured contrast enhancement. If the diffraction angle is chosen at 90 degrees, a polarized monochromatic beam is produced. While synchrotron sources are naturally polarized, polarized beams have been less accessible for field and clinical applications. Development has begun of polarized beam sources using very low power x-ray tubes coupled to polycapillary optics. The choice of the polarizing and analyzing crystals is a tradeoff between intensity and sensitivity to depolarization effects. Intensity and rocking curve measurements have been performed with matched silicon crystals and graphite crystals.

High-order harmonics are a relevant source of coherent extreme-ultraviolet and soft x-ray radiation of very short time duration, super spatial coherence and high peak brilliance. For their practical use however, the problem of the co-propagation of the high-energy pumping beam with the generated harmonics has to be solved. For this purpose a beam separator has to be used, with high damage threshold, high attenuation of the pump pulse, high throughput in the extreme-ultraviolet and tunability in a broad spectral region. In this work we present the design of a beam separator for ultrashort high-order harmonics with two diffraction gratings. The system can be designed for any wavelength in the 2-40 nm region, is efficient and robust with respect also to very powerful laser sources. Both temporal and spatial chirping effects are analyzed.

The design of a high-resolution monochromator for XUV radiation is presented. The configuration consists of an entrance slit, a paraboloidal mirror which collimates the XUV beam, a plane grating operated in the off-plane mount and illuminated by the parallel beam and a paraboloidal mirror which refocuses the beam on the exit slit. The off-plane geometry allows using the grating in grazing incidence and in high diffracted orders, resulting in broad-band XUV efficiency and high spectral resolution in a relatively compact environment. The wavelength selection is performed by rotating the grating around an axis passing through its center and parallel to the grooves, simplifying the mechanical movements. Spectral resolution as high as 100000 at 10 nm is expected in an instrument of <15 m length. The configuration will be discussed in details. To validate the concept, some efficiency measurements have been performed on two gratings operated in the off-plane geometry at high diffracted orders in the 50 to 140 nm region. Peak efficiencies in the 0.10-0.13 range have been measured. The configuration could be applied to realize a high-resolution monochromators for Free Electron Laser sources.

ARTEMIS, a multi-partner and multidisciplinary project, will be a users-dedicated facility that will provide ultrashort XUV pulses through high harmonic generation in a gas target. This high repetition rate synchronized source will allow new science in research fields spanning from the material science to the molecular physics and chemistry. The XUV radiation is expected to cover the range 10-100 nm with an estimated photons flux up to 10¹¹ photons/s per harmonic. In this work we present the design and characterization of the monochromator that will be used in the beamline for the experiments requiring wavelength and bandwidth selection. The working principle is based on a plane grating operated at grazing incidence in the off-plane mount. This geometry has been selected because of the high diffraction efficiency, expected to be about 30%. To cover the entire spectral range four gratings can be selected which span over different regions and with different spectral resolution. When the appropriate grating is chosen, the wavelength scanning is performed by rotating the grating around an axis passing through the grating center and parallel to the grooves direction. The off-plane mount requires the grating to be used in collimated light, consequently the optical scheme is completed by two toroidal mirrors, the first in front of the source that collimates the XUV radiation before the grating and the second after the grating to focalize the spectrally dispersed photons on the exit slit. Using a single grating, the configuration is not time-delay-compensated, nevertheless the time broadening (depending on the source divergence, the wavelength, and the grating) is less than 50 fs.

The use of extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV/EUV) enables a variety of new optical and analytical techniques such as EUV-lithography, -microscopy but also -reflectometry. Due to the strong interaction of XUV with matter, grazing-incidence reflectometry in the 1-40 nm range has proven to be a surface sensitive technique to characterize thin-film structures on the nanometer scale. Chemical composition, thickness and surface roughness of a deposited layer system can be determined indirectly from its reflectivity curve by non-linear regression techniques and the combined Nevot Croce- and general transfer matrix formalism for X-ray reflectivity. Here the reflectivity can either be determined as a function of incident wavelength at a fixed grazing angle or vice versa. This way it is even possible to specify a root-mean-square (rms) surface roughness of hidden layer-interfaces in the depth of a stack. To date, such measurements in the XUV have only been carried out at synchrotron facilities prohibiting an easy access to a broad range of users. Taking into account the recent progress in the development of short wavelength sources and optics, laboratory-scale, plasma-based XUV light-sources are becoming an attractive option for compact devices. Along with our simulations we present our experimental work on an off-synchrotron XUV-reflectometer for characterization of thin-film structures. The device can also be utilized to carry out scattered light measurements from ultra smooth surfaces, e.g. wafers, for defect inspection.

The extinction coefficient of Pr, Eu and Tm thin films prepared by evaporation in ultra high vacuum has been obtained in the spectral ranges 4-1600, 8.3-1400 and 10-1400 eV, respectively. These data were calculated from experimental values of the transmittance of the films performed in situ, which means that the samples were not exposed to the atmosphere before and during their characterization. Several films of increasing thickness were deposited onto grids coated with a thin C support film. The results show that Pr, Eu and Tm, similar to other lanthanides, have a lowabsorption band right below the O_2,3 edge onset, with lowest absorption measured at about 16.9, 16.7 and 23 eV, respectively. Therefore, these materials are promising for filters and multilayer coatings in the energy range below O_2,3 edge in which materials typically present a strong absorption. In the cases of Pr and Eu the ƒ sum rule was applied to the extinction coefficient data in the whole spectrum, that included the current data along with those of the literature and extrapolations. The obtained values of the number of electrons contributing to the optical properties of the materials were close to predictions, which shows the consistency of current data. In the case of Pr, the real part of the index of refraction was also calculated through the Kramers-Kronig analysis, and the consistency of the results was assessed by means of the inertial sum rule.

This manuscript discusses the development of reflective optics for the x-ray offset mirror systems of the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), a 0.15-1.5 nm free-electron laser (FEL) at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC). The unique properties (such as the high peak brightness) of the LCLS FEL beam translate to strict limits in terms of materials choice, thus leading to an x-ray mirror design consisting of a reflective coating deposited on a silicon substrate. Furthermore, the physics requirements for these mirrors result in stringent surface figure and finish specifications that challenge the state-of-the-art in x-ray substrate manufacturing, thin film deposition, and metrology capabilities. Recent experimental results on the development, optimization, and characterization of the LCLS soft x-ray mirrors are presented in this manuscript, including: precision surface metrology on the silicon substrates, and the development of boron carbide reflective coatings with reduced stress and thickness variation < 0.14 nm rms across the 175-mm clear aperture area of the LCLS soft x-ray mirrors.

For the stabilization of the SPring-8 double-crystal monochromator with water-cooled inclined-cut silicon crystals, we have changed the water path of the first crystal, remodeled the crystal holders and attached x-ray and electron shield parts. The improvements are effective to supply constant-intensity microbeam, to extend the life time of the elastomer O-rings for water seal, and to decrease the radiation damages of the electric cables of the motors. The 1 Å microbeam with the size of 50 μm × 50 μm at an experimental station keeps constant intensity, though the intensity decreased by 26 % per hour before the improvements. The vibration of the mechanical stages is discussed as the remaining problem.

One of the major goals of the National Synchrotron Light Source II project is to achieve ultrahigh energy resolution up to 0.1 meV for medium-energy inelastic X-ray scattering spectroscopy based on the angular dispersion optics employing extremely asymmetric backscattering geometry. In this papaer, we describe the complete monochromatization mechanisms underlying the new optics. We have also designed and tested a CDW-CDW prototype under ambient condition, with which we have successfully demonstrated the important angular dispersion effect, the Borrman enhanced transmission effect, and other optical principles involved in every step of the entire diffraction process, and found good agreement with the theoretical expectations. These studies indicate that the new optics are feasible in principle but face some technical challenges that need to be solved by our future systematic research and development activities before their practical applications.

The Topography X-ray Laboratory of the Advanced Photon Source (APS) at Argonne National Laboratory operates as a collaborative effort with APS users to produce high performance crystals for APS X-ray beamline experiments. For many years the topography laboratory has worked closely with an on-site optics shop to help ensure the production of crystals with the highest quality, most stress-free surface finish possible. It has been instrumental in evaluating and refining methods used to produce high quality crystals. Topographical analysis has shown to be an effective method to quantify and determine the distribution of stresses, to help identify methods that would mitigate the stresses and improve the Rocking curve, and to create CCD images of the crystal. This paper describes the topography process and offers methods for reducing crystal stresses in order to substantially improve the crystal optics.

A micro-channel plate (MCP) transmissivity is calibrated using the 3B3 medium energy X-ray beamline (from 2.0 to 5.5keV) on Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility (BSRF). MCP transmissivity near the two ends of low-energy 2.0keV and high-energy 5.5keV is higher than the middle part. We calculate reflectivity and transmission in the pores array of MCP respectively, and take the experiment result into account synthetically. It uncovers that the grazing incident X-ray in pores results in the total reflection, and the reflectivity rises as the X-ray energy decreases, which successfully explains the peculiar phenomena of the high transmissivity in low energy.

The Diamond Light Source beamline I12 (JEEP) is installing a monochromator for high-energy (50-150 keV) X-rays. It consists of two highly asymmetrically cut silicon crystals diffracting in the Laue case. These crystals will be bent to increase the bandpass to several hundred eV. It is necessary to estimate the tolerances for the angular alignment and the bending radii, and to account for gravitational and thermal distortions. A simple ray-tracing model has been developed for use with finite-element analyses. For simple cases, this model is backed by more precise wave-optical calculations.

Polycrystalline diamond detector prototypes suitable for x-ray spectroscopy were realized and tested. Thick diamond specimens, mechanically polished to reduce the surface roughness, were selected for prototypes development. Noble metal contacts were deposited on both faces, whereas multistrip structures were defined by photolithography on the growth face only with the aim of reducing the coupling capacitances and to allow characterization tests either in planar or sandwich configuration. Leakage currents as low as 20 pA at 500 V were measured on a 270μm thick device. The x-ray sensitivity was tested monitoring the photocurrent as a function of the applied voltage under continuous 8.05 keV Cu Kα irradiation. Studies in pulsed mode were also performed by using a commercial miniature x-ray source. Pulse height distributions were carried out with a system composed of a charge-sensitive preamplifier and a digital pulse processor multi-channel analyzer. Analysis was carried out around Ta Lα and Cu Kα characteristic lines. Realized prototypes were able to resolve such two characteristic lines only 90 eV apart. Energy resolutions better than 3% have been evaluated for one of the prototype at 8.14 keV. Such features address very good energy resolving capabilities and the suitability of polished polycrystalline diamond in x-ray spectroscopy.

Existing refractive X-ray lenses are characterized by either small apertures due to high absorption in the border areas. They can only be used with synchrotron sources, offering high brilliance. By increasing transparency and aperture the range of applications will expand, common X-ray tubes might turn out to be reasonable X-ray sources in an application with X-ray lenses. A basic concept that meets the demands is an X-ray Fresnel lens. But, Fresnel X-ray lenses are hard to fabricate, since the smaller lens structures need to be produced with extremely high aspect ratios. As an alternative, the Fresnel structures can be replaced by an array of prism-shaped structures. In particular equilateral triangular structures are easier to fabricate and additionally give a higher surface-volume-ratio, increasing transparency. At the Institute for Microstructure Technology the development of such prism lenses is under way. Due to the physical properties of X-rays, several thousands of precisely arranged prisms with large aspect ratio and smooth sidewalls are needed for a single X-ray lens. Therefore, direct X-ray lithography is used to fabricate the SU-8 microstructures. The length of one single prism edge is of the order of 10 μm. One single prismatic X-ray lens consists of up to 60.000 prisms. With the appropriate X-ray mask, refractive X-ray lenses with an aperture of up to 2 mm, for a source distance of 350 mm and a working distance of 350 mm are being produced, assuming a point-shaped source. These X-ray prism lenses are not optimized for smallest focal diameter, but designed to illuminate samples in X-ray optical systems. Most important in this application is an as high transparency as possible.

A polarimetric measurement technique based on the analysis of the reflection data given by a single mirror rotated around the incidence beam axis is presented. In the extreme ultraviolet spectral region, a multilayer coated mirror must be used. The multilayer mirror must be fully characterized before the experiment. Theory demonstrates how this method allows complete determination of Stoke's parameters in case of a totally polarized beam. A simulation code has been developed in order to model the experiment in case of synchrotron radiation propagating in a bending magnet beamline and impinging a multilayer mirror. The simulation is useful to verify each time the effectiveness of the method in the different experimental conditions considered. Finally an experimental application is presented.

The paper deals with the recent progress in fabrication of the graded multilayer mirrors to be used in a 21X Schwarzschild objective operating at the wavelengths about 4.5 nm ("carbon window" region). The graded Co/C reflective multilayer coatings were fabricated using DC-magnetron sputtering. Mask-assisted deposition was used to create the required radial variation of the multilayer period. Accuracy of the multilayer's parameter measurements and quality of nm-scale layer deposition were improved significantly with application of a number of new methods and approaches. The soft X-ray measurements were conducted at the ALS 6.3.2 beamline to quantify the graded periods on concave and convex mirrors of the Schwarzschild objective. They demonstrated that the reflectivity curves were adjusted with the accuracy of about 0.008 nm (0.3%) over the entire mirror surfaces. The total throughput of the objective with full working aperture (N_A ~ 0.2) is estimated to be as high as 0.25%.

EXtreme ultraviolet spectrosCope for ExosphEric Dynamics (EXCEED) is an earth-orbiting space Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) telescope mission that will be launched in 2012 and injected into the orbit around the earth. EXCEED will make observations of plasma space in various planets in our solar system. It is very important to put on an observing site beyond the atmospheric absorption when we observe EUV spectral range, and which enables us to study Io plasma torus of Jupiter, and interaction of the solar wind with the upper atmosphere of the planets and their escape. In this paper, we will introduce the mission overview, its instrument, and the scientific targets.

Three kinds of multilayer mirrors were developed for solar observation and earth's magnetosphere observation at Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) wavelength region. The first one is Mo/Si multilayer mirror, designed for solar Fe-XII emission line at wavelength of 19.5nm. The reflectivities are in the range of 38.7~42.9%, measured at National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (NSRL), Hefei, China. The second high-reflective multilayer is designed for solar He-II radiation at 30.4 nm. At this wavelength, SiC/Mg multilayers were investigated, and as high as 50.0% measured reflectivity was obtained at incident angle of 10°. Aperiodic SiC/Mg multilayers were also designed for wide angular ranges of 15-22° and 12-21°. The third multilayer mirror was a dual-function mirror used for earth's magnetosphere observation, which requires high-reflective for He-II emission line at wavelength of 30.4nm but low-reflectance at 58.4nm from ionosphere He-I emission. Using aperiodic SiC/Mg multilayer stack, the dual-function multilayer mirror was designed by genetic algorithm. Compared to periodic multilayer, the dual-function multilayer suppresses the reflectivity for He-I at 58.4nm from 2.2% to 0.1%, without loss of the reflection for He-II at 30.4nm, significantly. These multilayer mirrors were all prepared by magnetron sputtering system in IPOE, and measured at NSRL, China.

The source output power and lifetime, including the collector optics lifetime, are among the key issues for EUV lithography systems. In order to meet the requirements for the EUV collector mirror, both the reflectivity and the long-term thermal stability of its multilayer coating have been enhanced considerably during recent development efforts. Sub-aperture ellipsoidal mirrors of different substrate materials with outer diameters of about 320 mm were coated with laterally graded high-temperature multilayers. The interface-engineered Mo/Si multilayer mirror (MLM) coatings were optimized in terms of high peak reflectivity at 13.5 nm and working temperatures above 400°C. Thin barrier layers were introduced on both interfaces to block thermally induced interdiffusion processes of molybdenum and silicon and to provide long-term optical stability of the coating at elevated temperatures. A normal-incidence reflectance of R ~ 60 % at 13.5 nm was measured on Si wafer samples after heating up to 600°C. No degradation of the optical properties of these multilayer coatings occurred during both long-term heating tests and multiple annealing cycles. On highly polished collector substrates with improved surface roughness a reflectance for s-polarized light exceeding peak values of R = 57 % was obtained. With optimized layer gradient the degree of wavelength matching was improved, as well, resulting in peak reflectivity values above 56 % throughout the clear aperture for a series of measurement points across the mirror. The corresponding area-weighted 2% in-band average reflectance for this collector mirror coating exceeds 52 % for unpolarized light.

Small triangular prisms are arranged very regularly in Clessidra type x-ray lenses: they are interconnected at their tips and form a larger prism of equal shape very similarly to a stylised Christmas tree. Two opposing prisms of this type then form the Clessidra prism array. The name arrives from the similarity with an old hourglass, Clessidra in Italian. The construction principle makes the lens highly periodic in the vertical direction perpendicular to the incident beam. Thus with sufficiently spatially coherent x-ray illumination, the structure can be looked at as a linear transmission grating, i.e. a diffracting object. It is a special feature of the Clessidra lenses, that they have inherent focusing capabilities in the near field, or Fresnel regime of diffraction. In this regime the structure periodicity of the diffracting object is reproduced with different linear magnifications at the Talbot distances. The refraction in the prism structure then directs all incident intensities to a common crossover point at one of the Talbot distances. This situation was studied rigorously from the theoretical point of view. This report then presents simple models, which are in agreement with the rigorous calculations, and which can consistently explain our experimental data. For a given lens we varied the photon energy of the incident radiation and the distance between the lens and a CCD detector. In addition we moved a small slit of varying opening through the lens aperture. The experimental data will be interpreted also depending on the spatially coherently illuminated area at the lens.

VESPERS beamline is a hard X-ray microprobe beamline dedicated to micro-diffraction and micro-fluorescence analysis at the Canadian Light Source; it requires multi-bandpass X-ray beams for different types of samples and experiments. A specially designed double crystal/multilayer monochromator was built for this purpose with three different bandpasses: 0.01%, 1.6% and 10%. The diffraction elements used for the monochromator have a triple-stripe design using Si(111) crystal as a single substrate with two differing stripes of Mo/B₄C multilayers deposited thereon. The uncovered Si(111) section provides a 0.01% bandpass, while the periodic and depth-graded Mo/B₄C multilayers provide 1.6% and 10% bandpasses, respectively. This paper outlines the requirements and specifications of the diffracting elements as well as the design, deposition and optimization of the multilayers. The performance of the deposited multilayer structures has been tested using Cu-Kα radiation line with a Huber diffractometer.