We show recent results of GaN based LEDs, the high efficiency blue LED, the high efficacy white LED, the high color rendering LED, the warm white LED, and the high output power 365-nm UV LED. The output power and the external efficiency of the high efficiency blue LED at 20 mA were 19.3 mW and 35.8%, respectively. Moreover, the lifetime of the molded this lamp was improved. For the high efficacy white LED using this high efficiency blue LED, the correlated color temperature (CCT) and the luminous efficacy (η_L) at 20 mA were 5470 K and 61.4 lm/W, respectively. This luminous efficacy is close to that of a fluorescent lamp. When the high color rendering LED using new red phosphor and shorter-YAG was operated at 20 mA, the CCT, η_L and the general color rendering index (R_a) were 4670 K, 28.3 lm/W and 87.7, respectively. In particular, the red color reproduction was improved. For the warm white, the CCT, η_L and R_a at 20 mA were 2830 K, 18.9 lm/W and 87.5, respectively. It can be used as a replacement for incandescent bulbs. When the high output power 365-nm UV LED was operated at a forward bias direct current (DC) of 500 mA, P_o and η_ex were 210 mW and 12.4%, respectively.

The rapid pace of solid state technological development over the past four decades has resulted in almost universal acceptance of the phrase "Moore's Law," whether it is used accurately to refer to the exponential increase in computer processor power or to refer to some more amorphous scope of rapid change. More recent breakthroughs in LED science and engineering have precipitated a vigorous discussion of the depth and pace with which solid state light sources will penetrate the $50-billion world-wide lighting market. This discussion has not two perspectives but many, and each perspective can provide valuable insight into key issues that will determine the role that solid state technology will play in the lighting market of 2020 and beyond.

HBLEDs promise a new paradigm in lighting. Lighting industry acceptance of this exciting new source will be based on the ability of LED lamp and luminaire manufacturers to work together and in conjunction with technical societies to propose and adopt new standards, solve technical challenges, and develop effective luminaires. Once these luminaires are able to deliver superior value, industry adoption promises to be rapid based on the implementation of similar technologies in recent history.

To improve the escape of photons from an LED structure, we fabricated nano-sized cavities on a p-GaN surface utilizing Pt self-assembled metal clusters for an etch mask. Wet and dry etching processes were employed to produce nano-sized cavities on the p-GaN surface. The dry etching process produced cavities with diameters ranging from 200 nm to 450 nm and from 30 to 80 nm in depth, respectively. The wet etching process, however, produced small size cavities with a size of 5 ~ 6 nm. Electroluminescence measurement showed that the relative optical output powers are increased by 88% as evidenced by frontside measurement compared to those of LEDs with no nano-sized cavities. In addition, the electrical performance was also improved as evidenced by the I-V characteristic curves. This enhanced performance can be attributed to an enhancement in light escaping due to the increased light emitting area as the result of the surface cavities and also to the reduced contact resistance due to the increased contact area.

In light emitting diodes (LED) consisting of GaN/InGaN/GaN quantum wells (QWs), the exact indium distribution inside the wells of the active region affects the performance of devices. Indium segregation can take place forming small InGaN clusters of locally varying composition. In the past, we used a local strain analysis from single HRTEM lattice images to determine the In composition inside the InGaN QWs with a resolution of 0.5 nm x 0.3 nm. Truly atomic resolution can be pursued by exploitation of intensity dependencies on the atomic number (Z) of the electron exit-wave (EW). In microscopes with sufficient sensitivity, local variations of amplitude and phase are found to be discrete with sample thickness, which allows for counting the number of atoms in each individual column of ~ 0.08 nm diameter. In QW’s of ~ 17% of average indium concentration it is possible to discriminate between pure Ga columns and columns containing 1, 2, 3, or more In atoms because phase changes are discrete and element specific. The preparation of samples with atomically flat surfaces is a limiting factor for the application of the procedure.

Light emitting diodes, LEDs, historically have been used for indicators and produced low amounts of heat. The introduction of high brightness LEDs with white light and monochromatic colors have led to a movement towards general illumination. The increased electrical currents used to drive the LEDs have focused more attention on the thermal paths in the developments of LED power packaging. The luminous efficiency of LEDs is soon expected to reach over 80 lumens/W, this is approximately 6 times the efficiency of a conventional incandescent tungsten bulb. Thermal management for the solid-state lighting applications is a key design parameter for both package and system level. Package and system level thermal management is discussed in separate sections. Effect of chip packages on junction to board thermal resistance was compared for both SiC and Sapphire chips. The higher thermal conductivity of the SiC chip provided about 2 times better thermal performance than the latter, while the under-filled Sapphire chip package can only catch the SiC chip performance. Later, system level thermal management was studied based on established numerical models for a conceptual solid-state lighting system. A conceptual LED illumination system was chosen and CFD models were created to determine the availability and limitations of passive air-cooling.

Solid-State Lighting is fundamentally different than conventional lighting and can be advantageously treated this way. The semiconductor’s ability to respond linearly to current can be optimized to provide a more effective and reliable lighting system. The author discusses a lighting professional’s point of view towards strategies and algorithms for maximizing the useful lifetime of solid-state lighting systems.

Power LEDs have evolved from simple indicators into illumination devices. For general lighting applications, where the objective is to light up an area, white LED arrays have been utilized to serve that function. Cost constraints will soon drive the industry to provide a discrete lighting solution. Early on, that will mean increasing the power densities while quantum efficiencies are addressed. For applications such as automotive headlamps & projection, where light needs to be tightly collimated, or controlled, arrays of die or LEDs will not be able to satisfy the requirements & limitations defined by etendue. Ultimately, whether a luminaire requires a small source with high luminance, or light spread over a general area, economics will force the evolution of the illumination LED into a compact discrete high power package. How the customer interfaces with this new package should be an important element considered early on in the design cycle. If an LED footprint of adequate size is not provided, it may prove impossible for the customer, or end user, to get rid of the heat in a manner sufficient to prevent premature LED light output degradation. Therefore it is critical, for maintaining expected LED lifetime & light output, that thermal performance parameters be defined, by design, at the system level, which includes heat sinking methods & interface materials or methdology.

This study investigated a non-invasive method to determine the junction temperature of AlGaInP light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in a system. Because the primary cause for the AlGaInP LED degradation is junction temperature, this method can be used to predict LED life. Currently, life estimates of LED lighting systems quoted by manufacturers (commonly 100,000 hours) are based on the average life of a single LED measured under specific laboratory conditions. In reality, rates of degradation are much different for LEDs in a system than for those in a laboratory environment because the packaging and the environmental conditions in which the system operates can affect LED performance. Current practices for estimation require time-consuming life tests to accurately predict the life of LEDs. Therefore, a rapid estimation method for LED life is needed. Based on previous studies, the authors chose to focus on the measurement of junction temperature and its relationship to LED degradation. The primary objective of this study was to verify that wavelength shift could be used to estimate accurately the junction temperature of 5mm epoxy encapsulated AlGaInP LEDs. In this study, the junction temperature was increased by changing the drive current while holding the ambient temperature surrounding the LED constant, and by changing the surrounding temperature while holding the drive current steady. Experimental results from this study showed that for commercial LEDs, peak wavelengths shift proportionally to junction temperature regardless of how the temperature is created at the junction, and that this linear relationship could be used as a direct measure of the junction temperature. Because the primary cause for the degradation of AlGaInP LEDs is junction heat, the light output degradation rate of these types of LEDs can be predicted by measuring the spectral shift. Therefore, LED systems can be evaluated without disassembly in their intended application.

We have presented our study on optical models for simulating the light distribution of an LED and for calculating light extraction efficiency of an LED chip. In the former, we have precisely predicted the light distribution of an LED by a lens. In the latter, we have proposed to introduce a periodic sharpening structure on the interface between the sapphire and the n-GaN of a GaN-based LED to obtain as high as 73% in light extraction efficiency.

The goal of this study was to develop a non-contact method for determining the junction temperature of phosphor-converted white LEDs as a first step toward determining the useful life of systems using white LEDs. System manufacturers generally quote the same life values for their lighting systems that the LED manufacturers estimate for a single LED. However, the life of an LED system can be much different compared with the life of an LED tested under ideal conditions because system packaging can affect system life. Heat at the pn-junction is one of the key factors that affect the degradation rate, and thus the useful life, of GaN-based white LEDs. The non-contact method described in this manuscript, combined with LED degradation rates, can be used to predict white-LED system life without affecting the integrity of the lighting system or submitting it to long-term life tests that are time-consuming. Different types of LED packages would have different degradation mechanisms. Therefore, as a first step this study considered only the 5mm epoxy encapsulated GaN+YAG Cerium phosphor white LED. The method investigated here explored whether the spectral power distribution (SPD) of the white LED could provide the necessary information to estimate LED junction temperature. Based on past studies that have shown that heat affects the radiant energy emitted by the InGaN blue LED and the YAG Cerium phosphor differently, the authors hypothesized that the ratio of the total radiant energy (W) to the radiant energy within the blue emission (B) would be proportional to the junction temperature. Experiments conducted in this study verified this hypothesis and showed that the junction temperature can be measured non-invasively through spectral measurements.

Blue III-nitride based power LEDs have opened the way for Light Emitting Diodes to penetrate the illumination market. Most wanted seem to be warm white, high color rendering devices. Phosphor-converted LEDs, which meet these requirements, have been recently announced and sampled; they will be put into the context of possible other solutions and for the first time discussed in some detail.

A brief review is given of the development of phosphors for solid-state lighting and the properties of new materials that are being developed for this emerging technology to achieve higher efficiencies, full color rendition and ultra-long life characteristics.

When an atomic impurity is incorporated in a nanoparticle of size 2 to 10 nm, the quantum-confinement provided by the dielectric-boundary of the host-nanoparticle modulates the properties of the atom. This Quantum Confined Atom (QCA) shows extraordinary changes in its luminescent properties and is associated with the modulation of the excited states of the caged atom. These “atomically engineered nanomaterials,” pioneered and developed by Nanocrystals Technology, yield several novel properties and are expected to be a major contributor to the future of nanotechnology. Efficient QCA-Nanophosphors that emit different colors depending on the specific choice of the 'caged atom' are being developed for applications to solid-state lighting. We have made two key contributions to development of SSL. (1) By embedding nanoparticles in the encapsulant, the refractive index is enhanced to 1.8 that allows us to enhance Light Extraction Efficiency (LEE) of the LED chip. (2) Incorporation of appropriate nanophosphors enables efficient down-conversion with high color-quality. The combination of an optically transparent downconverter and high refractive index in an encapsulant has yielded Phosphor-Converted LEDs (PC-LEDs) that yield higher package optical efficiency at lower package-level cost. The LEE and wall plug efficiency enhancement due to the HRI encapsulant is applicable across the entire visible spectrum of monochromatic HB-LED lamps.

The photoluminescence and crystalline structure characterization of undoped and several samarium and erbium doped ZrO₂ samples are reported. Strong visible fluorescence emission produced by the transitions ⁴G_5/2→⁶H_5/2,7/2,9/2 of Sm³⁺ was obtained by the excitation of the host at 320 nm (downconversion). Green (545 nm) and red (680 nm) emissions bands were observed under 962 nm excitation (upconversion). Experimental results showed that the emission bands could be tuned by controlling the Er³⁺ concentration. In particular, for the highest Er³⁺ concentration, the red band is enhanced under 962 nm excitation. The nature of this behavior is discussed taking into account the concentration dependent non-radiative energy transfer (⁴I_13/2 + ⁴I_11/2) → (⁴F_9/2 + ⁴I_15/2) and cross-relaxation (²H_11/2 + ⁴I_15/2) → (⁴I_9/2 + ⁴I_13/2) process.

Semiconductor light emitting diode (LED) has become a promising device for general-purpose illumination applications. LED has the features of excellent durability, long operation life, low power consumption, no mercury containing and potentially high efficiency. Several white LED technologies appear capable of meeting the technical requirements of illumination. In this paper we present a new multi-color white (MCW) LED as a high luminous efficacy, high color rendering index and low cost white illuminator. The device consists of two LED chips, one is AlInGaN LED for emitting shorter visible spectra, another is AlInGaP LED for emitting longer visible spectra. At least one chip in the MCW-LED has two or more transition energy levels used for emitting two or more colored lights. The multiple colored lights generated from the MCW-LED can be mixed into a full-spectral white light. Besides, there is no phosphors conversion layer used in the MCW-LED structure. Therefore, its color rendering property and illumination efficiency are excellent. The Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) of the MCW-LED may range from 2,500 K to over 10,000 K. The theoretical General Color Rendering Index (Ra) could be as high as 94, which is close to the incandescent and halogen sources, while the Ra of binary complementary white (BCW) LED is about 30 ~ 45. Moreover, compared to the expensive ternary RGB (Red AlInGaP + Green AlInGaN + Blue AlInGaN) white LED sources, the MCW-LED uses only one AlInGaN chip in combination with one cheap AlInGaP chip, to form a low cost, high luminous performance white light source. The MCW-LED is an ideal light source for general-purpose illumination applications.

The advantages of near UV LED chips with phosphors for white light generation are discussed. Recently developed UV LED excitable phosphor blends are presented. Monte Carlo simulations suggest low color point variation (entirely within the first MacAdam oval) for the standard LED chip bin (400-410 nm), compared to high color point variation (outside the fourth MacAdam oval) for the standard bin (460-470 nm) and typical phosphors, modeled as Gaussians of realistic spectral width and targeting the 3000K ANSI color point (x=0.440, y=0.403). A discussion of the full LED package performance is also offered.

The performance characteristics of white light sources based on a multiple-LED approach, in particular dichromatic and trichromatic sources are analyzed in detail. Figures of merit such as the luminous efficacy, color temperature, and color rendering capabilities are provided for a wide range of primary emission wavelengths. Spectral power density functions of LEDs are assumed to be thermally and inhomogeneously broadened to a full width at half maximum of several kT, in agreement with experimental results. A gaussian line shape is assumed for each of the emission bands. It is shown that multi-LED white light sources have the potential for luminous efficacies greater than 400 lm/W (dichromatic source) and color rendering indices of greater than 90 (trichromatic source). Contour maps for the color rendering indices and luminous efficacies versus three wavelengths are given.

White light with high color rendering indices can be produced by additive color mixing of emissions from several light-emitting diodes (LEDs) having different primary colors. White Versatile Solid-State Lamps (VSSLs) with variable color temperature, constant-chromaticity dimming, and efficiency/color-rendering trade-off can be developed using pulse-width modulation (PWM) driving technique. However, such lamps exhibit chromaticity shifts caused by different temperature and aging coefficients of the optical output for primary LEDs of different colors. To overcome this drawback, we developed a polychromatic white solid-state lamp with an internal digital feedback. The lamp features a quadrichromatic (red-amber-green-blue) design based on commercially available high-power LEDs. The design is optimized to achieve high values of the general color rendering index (69 to 79 points) in the color-temperature range of 2856 to 6504 K. A computer-controlled driving circuit contains a pulse-width modulator and a photodiode-based meter. The software performs periodical measurement of the radiant flux from primary LEDs of each color and adjusts the widths of the driving pulses. These VSSLs with feedback found application in phototherapy of seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

This paper reviews the current status of the solid state lighting technology development at the Opto-Electronics & Systems Labs. (OES), Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) and recent industrial activities in the related areas in Taiwan.

Light exposure regulates several circadian functions in normal humans including the sleep-wake cycle. Individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) often do not have regular patterns of activity and rest, but, rather, experience random periods of sleep and agitation during both day and night. Bright light during the day and darkness at night has been shown to consolidate activity periods during the day and rest periods at night in AD patients. The important characteristics of bright light exposure (quantity, spectrum, distribution, timing and duration) for achieving these results in AD patients is not yet understood. Recent research has shown that moderate (~18 lx at the cornea) blue (~470 nm) light is effective at suppressing melatonin in normal humans. It was hypothesized that blue light applied just before AD patients retire to their beds for the night would have a measurable impact on their behavior. A pilot study was conducted for 30 days in a senior health care facility using four individuals diagnosed with mild to moderate levels of dementia. Four AD patients were exposed to arrays of blue light from light emitting diodes (max wavelength = 470 nm) in two-hour sessions (18:00 to 20:00 hours) for 10 days. As a control, they were exposed to red light (max wavelength = 640 nm) in two-hour sessions for 10 days prior to the blue light exposure. Despite the modest sample size, exposure to blue LEDs has shown to affect sleep quality and median body temperature peak of these AD patients. Median body temperature peak was delayed by approximately 2 hours after exposure to blue LEDs compared to exposure to red LEDs and sleep quality was improved. This pilot study demonstrated that light, especially LEDs, can be an important contribution to helping AD patients regulate their circadian functions.

The design and implementation of an architectural dimming control for multicolor LED-based lighting fixtures is complicated by the need to maintain a consistent color balance under a wide variety of operating conditions. Factors to consider include nonlinear relationships between luminous flux intensity and drive current, junction temperature dependencies, LED manufacturing tolerances and binning parameters, device aging characteristics, variations in color sensor spectral responsitivities, and the approximations introduced by linear color space models. In this paper we formulate this problem as a nonlinear multidimensional function, where maintaining a consistent color balance is equivalent to determining the hyperplane representing constant chromaticity. To be useful for an architectural dimming control design, this determination must be made in real time as the lighting fixture intensity is adjusted. Further, the LED drive current must be continuously adjusted in response to color sensor inputs to maintain constant chromaticity for a given intensity setting. Neural networks are known to be universal approximators capable of representing any continuously differentiable bounded function. We therefore use a radial basis function neural network to represent the multidimensional function and provide the feedback signals needed to maintain constant chromaticity. The network can be trained on the factory floor using individual device measurements such as spectral radiant intensity and color sensor characteristics. This provides a flexible solution that is mostly independent of LED manufacturing tolerances and binning parameters.

Solid-state lighting using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) has the potential to reduce energy consumption for lighting by 50% while revolutionizing the way we illuminate our homes, work places, and public spaces. Nevertheless, substantial technical challenges remain in order for solid-state lighting to significantly displace the well-developed conventional lighting technologies. We review the potential of LED solid-state lighting to meet the long-term cost goals.

Based on recent development of white LEDs, it becomes feasible to design automotive headlamps using LED light sources. While these LEDs are reaching high lumen output, the uniqueness of headlamp applications has not yet been sufficiently addressed. This paper discusses the optical features of an automotive headlamp, its optical design principles, light intensity distribution and concentration requirements, and safety and customer pleasing needs. Comparing LEDs to traditional tungsten halogen bulb filament, LED light sources for headlamp applications are being analyzed. The paper identifies that etendue concerns for automotive headlamps when using white LED light sources. It provides a guideline for considerations of LED development when implementing into automotive headlamp applications.

The external quantum efficiency (EQE, η_e) of conventional near-ultraviolet (NUV) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with an InGaN multi-quantum-well (MQW) structure is limited by high dislocation density and by the narrow escape cone due to total internal reflection at the GaN/air or sapphire/air interface. We have fabricated the NUV and violet InGaN-MQW-LEDs with the high EQE on the patterned-sapphire substrate (PSS) using a single growth process by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). The PSS with parallel grooves along the <11-20>_GaN direction or the <1-100>_GaN direction was fabricated by a standard photolithography and subsequent reactive ion etching (RIE). In this study, fabricated the LED on the PSS with parallel grooves along the <11-20>_GaN direction. The GaN layer grown by lateral epitaxy on a patterned substrate (LEPS) has dislocation density of 1.5x10⁸ cm^-2. The LEPS-NUV (or violet)-LED chips were mounted on the Si bases in a flip-chip bonding arrangement. When the LEPS-NUV-LED (the emission peak wavelength λp: 382 nm) was operated at a forward-bias current of 20 mA at room temperature (RT), the output power (P_o) and the EQE were 15.6 mW and 24%, respectively. When the LEPS-violet-LED (λp: 405 nm) was operated at a forward-bias current of 20 mA at RT, the P_o and the EQE were 26.3 mW and 43%, respectively. Furthermore, we obtained the P_o of approximately 61 mW at 50 mA and 111 mW at 100 mA, respectively. It was revealed that the PSS is very effective in reducing the dislocation density and for increasing the extraction efficiency due to the multiple scattering of the emission light at the GaN/patterned sapphire interface.

Ultra-violet light emitting diodes with a peak wavelength of 293 nm were grown by MOCVD on AlN on sapphire. The maximum output power was 15 μW at 100 mA DC current injection for on wafer, room temperature testing. We have shown that by forming an interdigitated multi-fingered n-contact compared to a square geometry LED, the series resistance is reduced by ~ 8 - 15 Ω at 100 mA. This results in a 2 - 4 V reduction in drive voltage at 100 mA. The quantum wells exhibit a sharp electroluminescence peak at 293 nm with a 9 nm full-width at half maximum, but deep level related emission was observed at 2.56, 2.80, 3.52, and 3.82 eV. The high energy peaks, 3.52 and 3.82 eV, saturate with increasing drive current while the low energy peaks, 2.56 and 2.80 eV, increase with drive current proportional to the quantum well emission. This indicates the recombination mechanism for the low energy and high energy peaks is fundamentally different. We have also shown that forward bias leakage current in these devices is another factor limiting the quantum efficiency.

The factors critical to the fabrication of high-lumen InGaN flip chip LEDs are discussed. It is shown that as the die size and the current density increase, the n-GaN sheet conductivity becomes extremely critical to uniform current spreading and the corresponding uniformity of light emission. It is observed that a thick p-metal is important in reducing hot spot formation. The p-contact is also critical to increasing light extraction efficiency and wall-plug efficiency. The merits and reliability of Al- and Ag-based p-contacts are compared. Reliability issues related to the n-contact are also discussed. Finally, performance data for InGaN blue lamps, for drive currents up to 900 mA is shown.

A laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate the performance characteristics of the currently available high-power LEDs under various drive conditions and ambient temperatures. Light output degradation and color shift properties as a function of time were measured for five types of commercial high-flux LEDs, namely, red, green, blue, and white from one manufacturer, and a different high-flux white LED package from a second manufacturer. The major difference between the two manufacturers’ products is that the first uses a single LED die per package, and the second uses multiple dies within its package. LED arrays were tested under normal drive current and ambient temperature, normal drive current and higher ambient temperature, and higher drive current and normal ambient temperature. Because each LED type has to operate at a particular ambient temperature, all were tested in specially designed individual life-test chambers. These test chambers had two functions: one, to keep the ambient temperature constant, and two, to act as light-integrating boxes for measuring light output parameters. Overall, the single-die green and white LED arrays showed very little light loss after 2,000 hours, even though the current and the ambient temperature were increased. However, the red LED array seemed to have a high degradation rate. The white LEDs had a significant color variation (of the order of a 12-step MacAdam ellipse) between them. However, the color shift over time was very small during the initial 2,000-hour period. For white LEDs to be accepted broadly for general illumination applications, the color variation between similar products must become much smaller, of the order of a 2-step MacAdam ellipse.

The Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System (MALSR) in use today at many airports throughout the United States employs many incandescent spot lamps. These lamps are relatively high wattage and, because of their relatively short life, require continual maintenance. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) have matured to the point that they can be considered to replace the inefficient incandescent lamps, especially when the latter are used with color filters. Under a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) contract, Lighting Innovations Corporation (LIC) has developed LED based green runway threshold lamps for use in the MALSR. They already have been tested under flight conditions and are scheduled for full operational testing at several airports throughout the country. This paper addresses the advantages of LEDs over incandescents in this and other airfield lighting applications. Photometric, radiometric and spectral quantities are discussed, as are electrical, thermal and mechanical aspects of the project.

In this paper we present the electro-optical model, using Aimspice in conjunction with a resistor network, for evaluating the LED designs for optimum uniform current spreading and efficient light extraction. Since high brightness is a critical factor for solid-state lighting, the ability for LED designs to be scalable is important, and we use the pinwheel design, which is aimed at increasing the p-contact area to aid in uniform current spreading, to demonstrate our model. The pinwheel LED design does not scale up because the percentage current uniformity decreases with device size and bias current. To validate the model the current voltage characteristics curves for the two LED sizes (X and 3X) are matched and the recombination saturation current densities values extracted as 7.8 x 10^-8 A/cm² and 8.6 x 10^-9 A/cm², respectively. The tunneling saturation current densities for smallest LED, X, is two orders of magnitude lower than the larger device (3X). Although the larger the LED the higher the photon generation, only a small fraction of these photons can escape the device. The largest photon density is generated under the p-metal contact, with decreasing generation towards the edge of the mesa. Since the metal is opaque to the photons, there is that tendency for most of the photons in this region to bounce back and forth in the device and finally get absorbed. For the 3X pinwheel LED at 20 mA forward current, the complimentary experimental and calculated results show that only 2.2% of the generated photons can escape the active region and make it to the outside world.

Light-emitting diode (LED) technology is becoming the choice for many lighting applications that require monochromatic light. However, one potential problem with LED-based lighting systems is uneven luminance patterns. Having a uniform luminance distribution is more important in some applications. One example where LEDs are becoming a viable alternative and luminance uniformity is an important criterion is backlighted monochromatic signage. The question is how much uniformity is required for these applications. Presently, there is no accepted metric that quantifies luminance uniformity. A recent publication proposed a method based on digital image analysis to quantify beam quality of reflectorized halogen lamps. To be able to employ such a technique to analyze colored beams generated by LED systems, it is necessary to have contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) for monochromatic light produced by LEDs. Several factors including the luminance, visual field size, and spectral power distribution of the light affect the CSFs. Although CSFs exist for a variety of light sources at visual fields ranging from 2 degrees to 20 degrees, CSFs do not exist for red, green, and blue light produced by high-brightness LEDs at 2-degree and 10-degree visual fields and at luminances typical for backlighted signage. Therefore, the goal of the study was to develop a family of CSFs for 2-degree and 10-degree visual fields illuminated by narrow-band LEDs at typical luminances seen in backlighted signs. The details of the experiment and the results are presented in this manuscript.

The advantage of enhancing the light extraction of LED dies is twofold: it increases the overall efficiency of the device, reducing internal absorption and subsequently the temperature of the device. We have developed the solid model of a commercially available blue LED in a ray tracing simulation software according to the physical structure of the GaN die grown on SiC substrate. Optical parameters of the various device layers were adjusted within a plausible range to achieve the best match between the measured and the simulated spatial luminous intensity profile. Two approaches for improving the light extraction efficiency were examined using the model: change of refractive index of the encapsulating medium and chip shaping. Simulation results were verified by a series of luminous intensity and total flux measurements in a mini-goniophotometer. We found that the physical experiment confirmed the predicted results.

This paper outlines two parts of a study designed to evaluate the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in channel-letter signs. The first part of the study evaluated the system performance of red LED signs and white LED signs against reference neon and cold-cathode signs. The results show a large difference between the actual performance and potential savings from red and white LEDs. Depending on the configuration, a red LED sign could use 20% to 60% less power than a neon sign at the same light output. The light output of the brightest white LED sign tested was 15% lower than the cold-cathode reference, but its power was 53% higher. It appears from this study that the most efficient white LED system is still 40% less efficient than the cold-cathode system tested. One area that offers a great potential for further energy savings is the acrylic diffuser of the signs. The acrylic diffusers measured absorb between 60% and 66% of the light output produced by the sign. Qualitative factors are also known to play an important role in signage systems. One of the largest issues with any new lighting technology is its acceptance by the end user. Consistency of light output and color among LEDs, even from the same manufacturing batch, and over time, are two of the major issues that also could affect the advantages of LEDs for signage applications. To evaluate different signage products and to identify the suitability of LEDs for this application, it is important to establish a criterion for brightness uniformity. Building upon this information, the second part of the study used human factors evaluations to determine a brightness-uniformity criterion for channel-letter signs. The results show that the contrast modulation between bright and dark areas within a sign seems to elicit the strongest effect on how people perceive uniformity. A strong monotonic relationship between modulation and acceptability was found in this evaluation. The effect of contrast seems to be stronger than that of spatial frequency or background luminance, particularly for contrast modulation values of less than 0.20 or greater than 0.60. A sign with luminance variations of less than 20% would be accepted by at least 80% of the population in any given context.

Interior spaces, such as conference rooms, require multiple forms of lighting to meet different task needs. Linear fluorescent lamp fixtures commonly produce the general ambient light, and reflectorized halogen lamp fixtures produce the directional lighting. Current lighting practice uses multiple light source technologies and fixtures to achieve the required illumination for the various tasks. However, many light fixtures can create an unappealing architectural design, especially in a small space, and multiple light source technologies can cause maintenance difficulties. The ideal scenario would be to create one fixture with a single type of light source that could meet a variety of lighting needs. The size, potential energy savings, and reduced maintenance benefits of white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) make them attractive for use in general illumination applications. Therefore, the goal of this study was to investigate whether a light fixture could be designed with white LEDs to provide different beam distributions. A commercially available ray tracing package was utilized to model, analyze, and optimize light fixture concepts created using LEDs and light guides. The fixtures were optimized for light output distribution and efficiency. While a rectangular-shaped light guide with simple diffused reflective surfaces provided the necessary cosine beam distribution, a more sophisticated surface treatment was required on the light extracting surface of the light guide to create the batwing beam distributions. The surface finish structures were in the form of micro-prism arrays. By switching LED arrays on and off to different light guides, various light levels and distributions could be achieved for different occasions. Further analysis showed that, when used in a typical conference room set up the fixture produced acceptable uniformity over the surfaces. Although the system provided the necessary beam distributions, the system efficiency was quite low, only 48%. Most of the light loss occurred in creating the batwing distribution. The overall system efficiency must be greater than 80% for this type of a fixture to become a viable solution.

We have investigated the temperature dependence of electrical and output performance of InGaN/GaN multiple-quantum well (MQW) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with different indium compositions in the InGaN/GaN MQWs. With increasing In composition in the MQWs, the output performance of the LEDs at room temperature was increased due to a deeper potential barrier for the carriers to escape from the MQWs and the localized energy states caused by a In composition fluctuation in MQWs. However, it was found that the output performance depends on the In composition in InGaN/GaN MQWs with increasing temperature from room temperature. With increasing temperature, the output power for LED with a relatively higher In composition in the MQWs was decreased more rapidly compared to that of LED with a lower In composition in the MQWs due to the increased nonradiation recombination through the high defect densities in the MQWs resulted from the increased accumulation of strain between InGaN well and GaN barrier.

Solid state lighting has seen a rapid development over the last decade. They compete and even outperform light sources like incandescent bulbs and halogen lamps. LEDs are used in applications where brightness, power consumption, reliability and costs are key parameters as automotive, mobile and display applications. In the future LEDs will also enter the market of general lighting. For all of these new applications highly efficient, scalable and cost efficient technologies are required. These targets can be matched by SiC based flip chip LEDs which enable the design of high current chips with efficiencies of up to 28 lm/W in white solderable packages. An alternative approach is the implementation of thinfilm technology for GaInN. The LED is fabricated by transferring the epilayers with laser lift off from sapphire to a GaAs host substrate. In combination with efficient surface roughening and highly reflective p-mirror metalization an extraction efficiency of 70% and wall plug efficiency of 24% at 460 nm have been shown. The chips showed 16 mW @ 20 mA with a Voltage of 3.2 V. The technology is scalable from small size LEDs to high current Chips and is being transferred to mass production.

The luminescence of Ce³⁺ in host lattices based on Y₃Al₅O₁₂ garnets that can be used in blue LED based solid state lighting sources is discussed. Specifically, the effect of Ga³⁺ and Tb³⁺ substitution for Al³⁺ and Y³⁺, respectively, on the emission color and thermal quenching of these phosphors is described with the initial implications for white light devices.