This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 8819, including the Title Page, Copyright Information, Table of Contents, and the Conference Committee listing.

Interest in nano-scale manufacturing research and development is growing. The reason is to accelerate the translation of discoveries and inventions of nanoscience and nanotechnology into products that would benefit industry, economy and society. Ongoing research in nanomanufacturing is focused primarily on developing novel nanofabrication techniques for a variety of applications—materials, energy, electronics, photonics, biomedical, etc. Our goal is to foster the development of high-throughput methods of fabricating nano-enabled products. Large-area parallel processing and highspeed continuous processing are high-throughput means for mass production. An example of large-area processing is step-and-repeat nanoimprinting, by which nanostructures are reproduced again and again over a large area, such as a 12 in wafer. Roll-to-roll processing is an example of continuous processing, by which it is possible to print and imprint multi-level nanostructures and nanodevices on a moving flexible substrate. The big pay-off is high-volume production and low unit cost. However, the anticipated cost benefits can only be realized if the increased production rate is accompanied by high yields of high quality products. To ensure product quality, we need to design and construct manufacturing systems such that the processes can be closely monitored and controlled. One approach is to bring cyber-physical systems (CPS) concepts to nanomanufacturing. CPS involves the control of a physical system such as manufacturing through modeling, computation, communication and control. Such a closely coupled system will involve in-situ metrology and closed-loop control of the physical processes guided by physics-based models and driven by appropriate instrumentation, sensing and actuation. This paper will discuss these ideas in the context of controlling high-throughput manufacturing at the nano-scale.

Inverted organic solar cells, which utilize a transparent cathode and a high work function metal anode, have been the subject of extensive research. Their advantages over conventional organic solar cells include increased resistance to environmental degradation and compatibility with large area fabrication techniques. Carrier transport layers are essential for achieving high power conversion efficiencies in inverted organic solar cells and therefore need to be compatible with these large area fabrication techniques. Inkjet printing is one such technique that can be integrated into the low cost mass production of these cells via roll to roll fabrication. N-type metal oxides such as ZnO or zinc tin oxide (ZTO) have been previously used as electron transport layers for inverted cells, but only as spin coated films. We have developed inkjet printable ZTO solutions for use as electron transport layers in inverted organic solar cells, and achieve power conversion efficiencies of over 3% in inverted P3HT:PC₇₁BM solar cells. We also discuss the effect of printing parameters on the electrical performance of these layers in inverted organic solar cells.

Detection of nanoparticles in solution is required to manage safety and environmental problems. Spectral transmission turbidity method has now been known for a long time. It is derived from the Mie Theory and can be applied to any number of spheres, randomly distributed and separated by large distance compared to wavelength. Here, we describe a method for determination of size, distribution and concentration of nanoparticles in solution using UV-Vis transmission measurements. The method combines Mie and Beer Lambert computation integrated in a best fit approximation. In a first step, a validation of the approach is completed on silver nanoparticles solution. Verification of results is realized with Transmission Electronic Microscopy measurements for size distribution and an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry for concentration. In view of the good agreement obtained, a second step of work focuses on how to manage the concentration to be the most accurate on the size distribution. Those efficient conditions are determined by simple computation. As we are dealing with nanoparticles, one of the key points is to know what the size limits reachable are with that kind of approach based on classical electromagnetism. In taking into account the transmission spectrometer accuracy limit we determine for several types of materials, metals, dielectrics, semiconductors the particle size limit detectable by such a turbidity method. These surprising results are situated at the quantum physics frontier.

Semiconductor fabrication process defect inspection industry is always driven by inspection resolution and through-put. With fabrication technology node advances to 2X ~1Xnm range, critical macro defect size approaches to typical CMOS camera pixel size range, therefore single pixel defect detection technology becomes more and more essential, which is fundamentally constrained by camera performance. A new evaluation model is presented here to specifically describe the camera performance for semiconductor machine vision applications, especially targeting at low image contrast high speed applications. Current mainline cameras and high-end OEM cameras are evaluated with this model. Camera performances are clearly differentiated among CMOS technology generations and vendors, which will facilitate application driven camera selection and operation optimization. The new challenges for CMOS detectors are discussed for semiconductor inspection applications.

High speed strobe based illumination scheme is one of the most critical factors for high throughput semiconductor defect inspection applications. HB LEDs are always the first and best options for such applications due to numerous unique advantages such as excellent spatial and temporal stability, fast responding time, large and linear intensity dynamic range and no heat issue for the extremely low duty cycle applications. For some applications where a large area is required to be illuminated simultaneously, it remains a great challenge to efficiently package a large amount of HB-LEDs in a highly confined 3D space, to generate a seamless illuminated area with high luminance efficiency and spatial uniformity. A novel 3D structured collimation lens is presented in this paper. The non-circular edge shape reduces the intensity drop at the channel boundaries, while the secondary curvatures on the top of the collimator lens efficiently guides the light into desired angular space. The number of the edges and the radius of the top surface curvature are control parameters for the system level performance and the manufacture cost trade-off. The proposed 3D structured LED collimation lens also maintains the benefits of traditional LED collimation lens such as coupling efficiency and mold manufacture capability. The applications can be extended into other non-illumination area like parallelism measurement and solar panel concentrator etc.

In this research, a novel heterodyne laser encoder for 6-DOF displacement and angle measurements is proposed. The technique combines the advantages of heterodyne interferometry, grating shearing interferometry, and Michelson interferometry. When a heterodyne light beam with two orthogonally polarized directions is used to focus on a semi-transmission grating, two detection configurations for in-plane and out-of-plane will be obtained. By means of measuring the phase variations of the interfering signals from the moving grating, the in-plane displacement can be acquired. Besides, the out-of-plane displacement can be obtained by detecting the optical path difference between the reference beam and the reflection beam. Furthermore, 6-DOF displacement and angle information can be measured simultaneously by using the beam dividing method. According to the experimental results, the measurement resolution is about 2 nm. The experimental results show that our proposed method has the ability to measure 6-DOF displacement and angle information with high system stability. Comparing with other commercial measurement instructions, this laser encoder has the advantages of high resolution, high stability, and high flexibility.

The NSF Nanomanufacturing Program supports fundamental research in novel methods and techniques for batch and continuous processes, and top-down and bottom-up processes leading to the formation of complex nanostructures, nanodevices and nanosystems. The program leverages advances in the understanding of nano-scale phenomena and processes, nanomaterials discovery, novel nanostructure architectures, innovative nanodevice and nanosystem design. It seeks to address issues such as quality, efficiency, scalability, reliability, safety and affordability. The program encourages research in the development of new nano-scale processes and production systems based on computation, modeling and simulation and use of process sensing, monitoring, and control. Research in instrumentation and metrology is an integral part of the program. Additionally, the program supports education of the next generation of researchers, and encourages building a workforce trained in nanotechnology and nanomanufacturing systems. It is also interested in understanding long-term societal implications of large-scale production and use of nano-scale materials. For this, it encourages the development of standards. This paper will describe the program philosophy.

The high resolution of the SEM is especially useful for qualitative and quantitative applications for both nanotechnology and nanomanufacturing. But, should users be concerned about the imaging and measurements made with this instrument? Perhaps one should or, at a minimum, understand some of the uncertainties associated with those measurements. It is likely that one of the first questions asked when the first scanning electron micrograph was ever taken was: “...how big is that?” The quality of that answer has improved a great deal over the past few years, especially since SEMs are being used as a primary tool on semiconductor processing lines to monitor the manufacturing processes. These needs prompted a rapid evolution of the instrument and its capabilities. Over the past 20 years or so, instrument manufacturers, through this substantial semiconductor industry investment of research and development (R&D) money, have vastly improved the performance of these instruments. All users have benefitted from this investment, especially where metrology with an SEM is concerned. But, how good are these data? This presentation will discuss a sub-set of the most important aspects and larger issues associated with imaging and metrology with the SEM. Every user should know, and understand these issues before any critical quantitative work is attempted.

New results for dimensional measurements of nanostructures obtained using the method of defocusing of the SEM electron probe are presented. The method is extended to nanostructures representing the protrusions of the trapezoidal form with the small size of the top base and the features (protrusions and trenches) with nearly vertical sidewalls. It is also shown that the method can be applied for measurements of geometric parameters of features located on resist masks as well as of individual nanoparticles.

Recently, a new technique called Fourier normalization has enabled the parametric fitting of optical images with multiple or even a continuum of scattered spatial frequencies. Integral to the performance of this methodology is the characterization of the high magnification imaging microscope used in these experiments. Scatterfield microscopy techniques yield the necessary angular resolution required for determining the effects of the illumination and collection paths upon the electric field within the microscope. A multi-step characterization methodology is presented with experimental examples using a microscope operating at λ = 450 nm. A prior scatterfield characterization technique for specular reflectors is reviewed and shown to be a special case of the newer generalized approach. Possible implications of this methodology for improved critical dimension measurements are assessed.

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) has gone through a tremendous evolution to become a critical tool for many and diverse scientific and industrial applications. The improvements that have been made have significantly improved the overall SEM performance and have made the instrument far easier to operate. But, ease of operation also fosters operator complacency. In addition, the user friendliness has reduced the “apparent” need for more thorough operator training for using of these instruments. Therefore, this overall attitude has fostered the concept that the SEM is just another expensive digital camera or another peripheral device for a computer. Hence, a person using the instrument may be lulled into thinking that all of the potential pitfalls have been eliminated and they believe everything they see on the micrograph is always correct. But, this may not be the case. The first paper in this series, discussed some of the issues related to signal generation in the SEM, instrument calibration, electron beam interactions and the need for physics-based modelling to accurately understand the actual image formation mechanisms. All these were summed together in a discussion of how these issues effect measurements made with the instrument. This second paper, discusses another major issue confronting the microscopist: specimen contamination. Over the years, NIST has done a great deal of research into the issue of sample contamination and its removal and elimination and some of this work is reviewed and discussed here.

Bistability was observed in a frequency-doubled and q-switched Nd:YAG rod-Laser. When the same cavity contains a quarter-wave plate (QWP) no such bistability is observed and higher output powers are obtained. By means of a Monte-Carlo simulation of the rate equations we achieve good agreement with the observed behavior.

Magnetic Random Access Memory (MRAM) has emerged as the leading candidate for future universal memory due to its non-volatility, excellent endurance and read/write performance. The magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) is a data storage element in MRAM and is basically composed of two ferromagnetic layers separated by the magnesium oxide (MgO) tunnel barrier. MgO between two ferromagnetic layers was adopted to enlarge the resistance difference between two kinds of magnetic arrangements by tunneling current through MgO. Like this, it is important to understand characterization of MgO for developing Mram. Due to thin thickness of MgO, FIB milling should be used for the preparation of TEM specimens in Mram. The major problem in MgO sampling by FIB milling is the transform of MgO between two ferromagnetic due to FIB induced damage, which leads to high tunnel current through MgO and high resistance difference between two kinds of magnetic arrangements. An understanding of FIB generated artifact on MgO is important to analysis Mram and to optimize the sample preparation process. The normal ion beam damage are compared with low-keV FIB ion beam damage on blanket MgO wafer. Experiments were performed using Helios 450 FIB(FEI) and XV-200TBs(SII) with gallium ion sources operated at 30 keV to 2 keV, respectively. As a preliminary, the thicknesses of all specimens were fixed at 100nm for the final ion beam milling currents of 210 pA(30 keV) by Helios 450 FIB(FEI). Specimens of 100nm were transferred to low-keV FIB (Helios 450/XV-200TBs) to do the low-keV ion milling. Then each specimen had a 2 keV cleaned surface and a 30 keV FIB prepared surface. In this paper, we understand the normal ion beam damage on blanket MgO through changing beam current and beam voltage. Then we present the optimized recipe and which equipment is better to analysis.

The size and size distribution of nanomaterials are important factors for understanding their characteristics. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides an easily accessible method to characterize nanostructures. We have developed a standard operating protocol (SOP) for the calibration of SEM by using CRMs (certified reference materials) of 1 dimensional (1D) gratings with 80 and 180 nm spacing, respectively, which have been certified by using a metrological AFM. To get consistent analysis results using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) method, the numbers of lateral and longitudinal pixels in the SEM images were determined for line profiling. We could also observed that the pitch values of 1D grating CRM could be obtained as the reference ones within the uncertainty under the following imaging conditions; the exposure time of the sample to the electron beam for an image scanning should be shorter than 120 s and the working distance from 5 to 8.9 mm can be used.