The purpose of this research was to examine the utility of several forms of target selection controllers in various air-to-air engagement scenarios for 3-D stereoscopic tactical situation displays. The target selection controller interfaces included: (1) ultra-sonic hand tracker with a proximity cursor aiding algorithm (proximity aiding consisted of an algorithm that selected the target closest to the cursor), 2) ultra-sonic hand tracker with a contact cursor aiding algorithm (contact aiding consisted of an algorithm which only selected the target that graphically 'touched' the cursor), and (3) voice recognition system (VRS). The air-to-air engagement target scenarios ratios encompassed: (1) a target ratio in which there was one enemy aircraft for every three noise targets (1 v 3), (2) a ratio in which there was one enemy for every two noise targets (1 v 2), and (3) a ratio in which there were three enemy targets for every one noise target (3 v 1). The performance of these controllers within the differing target environments was measured by (1) the amount of time required for the subjects to complete each task using the different controllers, and (2) the number of errors produced by the subjects in each condition with each controller type. Results show that voice recognition was the fastest and most accurate. Proximity aided hand tracker was second fastest but yielded the most errors. The more cluttered 1 v 3 ratio condition caused more errors than the other two target to noise ratio conditions.

The paper analyzes the image quality of video presented on the new AMLCD F/A-18 E/F multipurpose color display (MPCD) and compares it to the shadow-mask CRT based F/A-18 C/D MPCD. We focus on the contrast ratio advantages held by the AMLCD over the CRT and the resulting superior presentation of color map video and monochrome sensor video. We present modulation transfer functions (MTFs) for the E/F AMLCD and the C/D shadow-mask CRT, and combine these with the contrast threshold function (CTF) of the human visual system, to compute an objective image quality metric, the MTFA, that has been found to correlate well with performance in military detection and recognition tasks. The phase/space varying nature of the LCD requires the use of a multi-valued modulation transfer function (MMTF) in contrast to the single valued MTFs traditionally derived for phase/space invariant systems. The significant difference between the MTFAs for the E/F MPCD and the C/D MPCD highlight the superior image quality produced by the AMLCD. This superior image quality translates into better detection and recognition of target details from sensor video. Two additional metrics, the limiting resolution, and the SQRI, are also computed and used to confirm the overall conclusions.

As the number of sensor and data sources in the military cockpit increases, pilots will suffer high levels of workload which could result in reduced performance and the loss of situational awareness. A DRA research program has been investigating the use of data-fused displays in decision support and has developed and laboratory-tested an explanatory tool for displaying information in air combat scenarios. The tool has been designed to provide pictorial explanations of data that maintain situational awareness by involving the pilot in the hostile aircraft threat assessment task. This paper reports a study carried out to validate the success of the explanatory tool in a realistic flight simulation facility. Aircrew were asked to perform a threat assessment task, either with or without the explanatory tool providing information in the form of missile launch success zone envelopes, while concurrently flying a waypoint course within set flight parameters. The results showed that there was a significant improvement (p less than 0.01) in threat assessment accuracy of 30% when using the explanatory tool. This threat assessment performance advantage was achieved without a trade-off with flying task performance. Situational awareness measures showed no general differences between the explanatory and control conditions, but significant learning effects suggested that the explanatory tool makes the task initially more intuitive and hence less demanding on the pilots' attentional resources. The paper concludes that DRA's data-fused explanatory tool is successful at improving threat assessment accuracy in a realistic simulated flying environment, and briefly discusses the requirements for further research in the area.

This paper describes our vision of sunlight readable color display requirements, an alternate technology that offers a high level of performance, and how we implemented it for the military avionics display market. This knowledge base and product development experience was then applied with a comparable level of performance to commercial applications. The successful dual use of this technology for these two diverse markets is presented. Details of the technical commonality and a comparison of the design and performance differences are presented. A basis for specifying the required level of performance for a sunlight readable full color display is discussed. With the objective of providing a high level of image brightness and high ambient light rejection, a display architecture using collimated light is used. The resulting designs of two military cockpit display products, with contrast ratios above 20:1 in sunlight are shown. The performance of a commercial display providing several thousand foot- Lamberts of image brightness is presented.

Current work in the area of increasing the efficiency of AMLCDs is focusing primarily on improved aperture ratio and backlight efficiency. While progress in these areas has been significant, systems are rapidly approaching the thermodynamic limits. The paper discusses what those limits are and offers several alternatives to re-architecting the LCD optical stack to change the nature of these limitations and potentially improve the efficiency of AMLCDs by more than an order of magnitude.

A planar optic display (POD) is being built and tested for suitability as a high brightness replacement for the cathode ray tube, (CRT). The POD display technology utilizes a laminated optical waveguide structure which allows a projection type of display to be constructed in a thin (1 to 2 inch) housing. Inherent in the optical waveguide is a black cladding matrix which gives the display a black appearance leading to very high contrast. A digital micromirror device, (DMD) from Texas Instruments is used to create video images in conjunction with a 100 milliwatt green solid state laser. An anamorphic optical system is used to inject light into the POD to form a stigmatic image. In addition to the design of the POD screen, we discuss: image formation, image projection, and optical design constraints.

Modern avionics systems are required to impart very large volumes of information about the aircraft's external environment, subsystems, operations, and navigation in real time with minimal impact on the pilot's ability to perform duties and minimal requirements for power and space. To achieve this, high resolution, high brightness displays are required, most often also requiring full color and full video rate. These displays should not demand much space or power and must be reliable, long-lived and able to operate in extreme environments, such as wide temperature ranges, large brightness ranges, and high acceleration and shock. Field emitter array based displays (FEDs) present the avionics community with an opportunity to obtain CRT-like performance in a thin, lighter weight, and more power efficient package. While cathodoluminescent is energy efficient, beam blocking shadow masks, heated filaments, and electromagnets waste most of the CRT's power. Row at a time addressing in FEDs lowers the peak current per pixel, decreases flicker, and increases phosphor life. There are also other opportunities made possible by FEDs such as built-in electronics subsystem capability, true matrix formatting, and an ability to distort arrays to correct for optics systems. Flat-panel displays utilizing field emission array-based technology offer such characteristics, and promise to do so with reduced cost when compared to alternative solutions.

Flat panel display technology changes at an ever increasing pace. New developments continually optimize power, size, weight, and performance which in turn revolutionize avionics capabilities. A myriad of technologies exists, each with its own merits and shortcomings. This paper discusses the attributes of several flat panel display technologies, including plasma and liquid crystal displays, and their application in the avionics environment.

The introduction of the beam index cathode ray tube (CRT) as an airborne pilot display unit imposes tight performance requirements on the associated high voltage power supply (HVPS). Previous HVPS technology produced upwards of 25,000 Vdc (25 Watts) anode potential with plus or minus 0.1% regulation allowance (100 Vpk instantaneous deviation). Beam index technology requires a HVPS of higher anode potential and 100% tighter regulation. This and other demanding electrical requirements of beam index CRT HVPS are presented in this paper, together with design approaches to meet them. The HVPS output power density, thermal stability, and dynamic focus performance were all improved.

A fully militarized color multifunction display for the F-16 has been completed and is in the first months of production. This high performance display is a tightly integrated ensemble of optical, electronic, mechanical, and thermal designs, Many of the elements are critically interdependent, requiring fine-tuning to achieve the exceptional performance required by the F-16 environment. With no cooling air available on the F-16, the thermal requirements, both specified and implicit, dominated the design process. The high luminance requirements, in combination with a high resolution display, concentrated a great deal of heat in the display module. As a result, thermal efficiency and management were paramount. Temperature stability and performance of the liquid crystal material itself, stability of the polarizers, optical and electronic efficiency and heat extraction design required intense scrutiny.

Development and testing of an AMLCD-display to replace a dichroic display in a fighter aircraft environment has presented a unique set of technical challenges. This paper addresses some lessons learned in testing the effect of solar heating of the AMLCD during storage conditions.

The modernization program for the Bradley Fighting Vehicle, M2 A3, represents the first deployment of an active matrix liquid crystal display, AMLCD, in a military ground vehicle. In many respects the selection of AMLCD was determined according to the familiar metrics which have resulted in AMLCD being broadly selected for modern air vehicle installations. In fact, there is considerable similarities between the Bradley AMLCD and its recent forbearers in the avionic industry. In the Bradley, the AMLCD unit is referred to as a color flat panel display, CFPD and the features of this unit, as well as its environment and utilization are described in this paper.

The efforts of the design team for the Crewman's Associate Advanced Technology Demonstration (CA ATD) and its use of advanced display concepts is discussed. This team has the responsibility of identifying future technologies with the potential for maximizing human- machine interaction for incorporation into future crew station designs for ground combat vehicles. The design process utilizes extensive user involvement in all stages. This is critical to developing systems that have complex functions, yet are simple to maintain and operate. Described are the needs which have driven the U.S. Army towards the use of flat panels. Ultimately, the army is looking at smaller, lighter, more deployable ground combat vehicles. This goal is driving individual components to have characteristics such as low weight, low power usage, and reduced volume while maintaining ruggedness and functionality. The potential applications for flat panels in ground vehicles is also discussed. The army is looking at applications for out-the-window views (virtual periscopes), multi-functional displays, and head mounted displays to accomplish its goals of designing better crew interfaces. The army's requirements in regards to the technologies that must be developed and supported by flat panel displays are also discussed in this section. In conclusion, future projections of the use of flat panels for the Crewman's Associate ATD will be outlined. Projections will be made in terms of physical numbers and promising technologies that fulfill the goals of the CAATD and achieve the approval of the user community.

The high performance military aircraft has proceeded down the path to an 'all glass' cockpit with larger and larger area head down displays. The transition from electro-mechanical instruments was started with cathode ray tube (CRT) displays and accelerated with active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCD). Now, another technology, field emission, is poised to enter the cockpit with promises of better performance than its two predecessors. Field emission display (FED) devices will soon be available for civilian and commercial applications. It is crucial that applications such as high performance large area military aircraft displays be examined up front before fabrication decisions preclude construction of such devices. It is also important that experience gained, problems encountered, and lessons learned from insertion of CRT and AMLCD technology be considered.

Electromechanical (EM) displays have become common in daily life. From automobiles to railway timetable displays and from advertising boards to sophisticated aerospace displays, the EM display is ever-present. This paper addresses the design, problems and supersession of EM technology. This paper covers part of the history and performance of EM displays in the high performance environment and concentrates primarily on aircraft applications.

This paper examines the use of cathode-ray tube (CRT) display technology in military and other high performance applications. The history, advantages and problems associated with this technology are reviewed. The limitations, problems and solutions experienced in the past, and currently, are considered together with the solutions being offered by new CRT technology. Examples of the demanding applications of CRTs are presented. The CRT-based technology dominates the installed high performance electronic displays, and may continue to do so for some years.

The display industry is moving at such an incredibly fast rate that it is difficult to keep up with the advances in each technology area. Many display users are unaware of the strengths and weaknesses of the various display technologies in diverse application environments, and, therefore, displays are selected which may or may not perform to the original system performance specifications. This paper addresses the performance of electroluminescent (EL) displays in fielded military systems from an application perspective. In addition, the latest advances in overcoming some of the limitations of EL also are discussed.

A display is an electronic component or subsystem used to convert electrical signals into visual imagery in real time suitable for direct interpretation by a human observer. Until recently, the cathode ray tube (CRT) has been the main source of displays. During the last twenty years, it has been determined that alternatives to CRT displays need to be found. One of the alternatives was the introduction of flat-panel displays. The term 'flat-panel display' is more of a concept than a specific entity. It is a display which is flat and light and may not require a great deal of power. A flat-panel display is often defined in terms of the ideal display, that being: thin form, low volume, even surface, having high resolution, high contrast, sunlight readable, color, low power, and being solid-state and lightweight. This is easy to conceive but difficult to deliver. The objective is to develop displays with as many desirable characteristics as possible. Flat-panel displays are basically of two types: the light valve type (that needs an external source of light such as a backlight or arc-lamp) and the emissive type (that generate light at the display surface). The light emitting diode (LED) display is of the emissive type. The LED displays have been in use for more than 25 years in one form or the other. Because of certain limitations of inorganic materials (such as cost, power, and color), LED displays do not dominate the flat-panel display market. A recent discovery of polymer and organic materials may change LED prospects. It is now believed that it may become possible to make LED displays that are inexpensive, low-power, and at the same time provide full color. If present research objectives are met, LEDs, especially organic LEDs, may revolutionize the flat-panel display market. This paper addresses the various aspects of LED technology with particular reference to its useful characteristics, and the limitations that need to be overcome.

There are a variety of displays that use light valve devices for controlling the color and intensity of the light forming an image. The purpose of the light valve is to modulate the available light as efficiently as possible to produce an image either for direct view or projection to a screen. Display types include classic oil film light valves, lead lantanum zirconium titanate (PLZT) devices, active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCDs), liquid crystal light valves (LCLV), the digital micromirror device (DMD), and acousto-optic (AO) modulated and scanned laser projectors. Traditional military applications of light valve devices include flight instruments, helmet mounted displays, fixed and mobile command and control/situation large screen displays, and simulator projectors. This paper addresses high performance applications of light valve display technologies, including applications, requirements, and characteristics for applications incorporating light valve devices.

A new operator display subsystem is being incorporated as part of the next generation United States Navy (USN) helicopter avionics system to be integrated into the multi-mission helicopter (MMH) that replaces both the SH-60B and the SH-60F in 2001. This subsystem exploits state-of-the-art technology for the display hardware, the display driver hardware, information presentation methodologies, and software architecture. Both of the existing SH-60 helicopter display systems are based on monochrome CRT technology; a key feature of the MMH cockpit is the integration of color AMLCD multifunction displays. The MMH program is one of the first military programs to use modified commercial AMLCD elements in a tactical aircraft. This paper presents the general configuration of the MMH cockpit and multifunction display subsystem and discusses the approach taken for presenting helicopter flight information to the pilots as well as presentation of mission sensor data for use by the copilot.

Battelle is under contract with Warner Robins Air Logistics Center to design a common large area display set (CLADS) for use in multiple airborne C⁴I applications that currently use unique 19 inch CRTs. Engineers at Battelle have determined that by taking advantage of the latest flat panel display technology and the commonality between C⁴I applications, one display head (21 inch diagonal, 1280 by 1024) can be used in multiple applications. In addition, common modules are being designed by Battelle to reduce the number of installation- specific circuit card assemblies required for a particular application. Initial USAF applications include replacements for the E-3 AWACS color monitor assembly, E-8 Joint STARS graphics display unit, and ABCCC airborne color display. Initial U. S. Navy applications include the E-2C ACIS display. For these applications reliability and maintainability are key objectives. The common design reduces the number of unique subassemblies in the USAF inventory by 56 to 66%. In addition to total module reductions, CLADs module/subassembly re-use across nine potential applications is estimated to be 73%. As more platforms implement CLADS, the percentage of module re-use increases. The new design is also expected to have a MTBF of at least 3350 hours, an order of magnitude better than one of the current systems. In the Joint STARS installation, more than 1400 pounds can be eliminated from the aircraft. In the E-3 installation, the CLADs is estimated to provide a power reduction of approximately 1750 watts per aircraft. This paper discuses the common large area display set design and it use in a variety of C⁴I applications that require a large area, high resolution, full color display.

Under the sponsorship of Wright Laboratory (contract F33615-92-C-3802), Honeywell has been involved in the definition of next-generation display processors. This paper describes the top-level design approach, simulation and tradeoff studies, as well as the resulting architectural concepts for the cockpit display generator (CDG) processing system. The CDG architecture provides the graphical and video processing power needed to drive future high- resolution display devices and to generate advanced display formats for improved pilot situation awareness. The foremost objective of the CDG design is to achieve super-graphics workstation performance in a form factor suitable for avionics applications. The CDG design provides multichannel, high-performance 2-D and 3-D graphics and real-time video manipulation. Requirements for the CDG have been defined by the needs of Panoramic Cockpit Control and Display System (PCCADS) 2000 cockpits. Most notable are requirements for low-volume, low-power, real-time performance and tolerance for harsh environmental conditions. These goals have been realized by combining customized graphics pipelines with standard processing elements. The CDG design has been implemented as a software 'prototype' using VHDL performance and functional models. This novel design approach allows architectural tradeoffs to be made within the context of a standard design language, VHDL. Simulations have been developed to specify and evaluate particular system performance and functional and design aspects.

We have successfully developed a laboratory prototype of an all electronic process for producing holograms. This electronic process generates both real and virtual holographic images. The real image is projected into the room with the viewer, and can be viewed in standard room lighting.

Flat panel displays (FPDs) are among the most rapidly evolving electronic components today. Newer, better products are being introduced at an ever increasing rate. While these occurrences make the latest advances in technology available, it also results in shorter product lives as newer products make older obsolete. This puts the end user and suppliers of FPD based products in a potentially vulnerable position. Military applications are particularly sensitive to this situation as their life spans most often exceed those of FPDs. This paper addresses the issue of short FPD component product lives, and presents several techniques employed by Eaton in FPD based designs that are an attempt to minimize vulnerability imposed by the FPD industry.

There is a need for high performance flat panel displays to replace and upgrade the electromechanical flight indicators and CRT based displays used in the cockpits of many older aircraft that are in active service today. The need for replacement of these older generation instruments is well known in the industry and was discussed in a previous paper by Duane Grave of Rockwell Collins. Furthermore, because of the limited activity in new aircraft development today, the need to upgrade existing aircraft avionics is accelerating. Many of the electromechanical instruments currently provide flight indications to the pilot and include horizontal situation (HSI) and attitude director indicators (ADI). These instruments are used on both military and commercial aircraft. The indicators are typically housed in a 5ATI case that slides into a 5 inch square opening in the cockpit. Image Quest has developed a 4 by 4 inch active area, flight quality, high resolution, full color, high luminance, wide temperature range display module based on active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) technology that has excellent contrast in full sunlight. The display module is well suited for use in electronic instruments to replace or upgrade the electro-mechanical 5ATI flight indicators. THe AMLCD based display offers greatly improved display format flexibility, operating reliability and display contrast in all ambient lighting conditions as well as significant short and long term cost of ownership advantages.

High performance display devices are being developed which have the potential to provide the solutions to many requirements for information assimilation on the battlefield. At the same time information systems are developing the ability to acquire, process, and distribute more information than any user can handle. Display subsystem architecture will be developed which can provide access to all information of practical use, provide data visualization in an efficient manner and use the advanced hardware and software technologies to address the human sensory modality without overloading the user and degrading performance. A research program will be conducted collaboratively with Rockwell International, its Consortium Members and the Army Research Laboratory. The research thrust will be to explore technical solutions in displays, software, and human-computer interface in such a way as to solve technology insertion issues.

Avionic displays are required to be fully functional over a wide range of ambient illumination, encompassing bright sunlight during the day and dim starlit sky at night. Additionally, in most applications the night operation is required to be compliant with night vision imaging system (NVIS A or B) goggles. This article describes a patented dual lighting system, employing a hot cathode fluorescent lamp for the day mode and a filtered cold cathode fluorescent lamp against a light pipe (edgelit) for the night mode of operation. Since the two modes of operation are decoupled from each other, the day mode can be designed for high luminance and broad color gamut, regardless of NVIS requirements, while the night mode can be designed to be compatible with either the NVIS-A or NVIS-B systems with no impact to the day mode. This unique blacklight design provides a wide dimming range for the display and delivers excellent performance under all viewing conditions. Furthermore, this approach provides excellent uniformity in the night mode with minimal color shifts over view angles and has been successfully implemented on two cockpit display programs.

This paper is an update to a paper presented in the 1995 SPIE conference, Cockpit Displays II - LCD Backlight Performance over the Military Operating Temperature Range, by M. Marentic. SAIC has developed an LCD backlight system using a fluorescent cavity as the technical approach. The approach has proven performance in several military aircraft displays and a commercial display. The design is readily adaptable to various LCD sizes and 4' by 4' to 10' by 12.5' units have been built and evaluated. In October 1995, SAIC and the U.S. Display Consortium signed a development agreement to transition the backlight approach from engineering to manufacturing. The cost-shared effort is described in this paper. The manufacturing development effort includes the design and construction of lamp manufacturing equipment, phosphor coating and curing equipment and a cellular assembly operation.

Military operations are characterized by the most challenging environmental conditions that any display system will encounter. Pilots in a bubble canopy cockpit interface with displays in an extremely bright ambient lighting condition, making sunlight readability a serious consideration. All military equipment, displays or otherwise, may experience severe environmental conditions (vibration, shock, heating, electromagnetic) in systems ranging from Army tanks and land vehicles, to Air Force aircraft, to Navy ships and submarines. As new display technologies evolve a host of system level performance issues need to be thoroughly tested and evaluated before they transition to military applications. Unlike electromechanical and CRT based instruments, most flat panel displays (FPDs) lack sufficient operational data to thoroughly characterize their performance capabilities under realistic operating conditions. Laboratory testing, therefore, can serve as a crucial source of performance data under simulated operating environments. Presented here is an overview to FPD testing that addresses test categories, standards, and areas of concern.

Active matrix liquid crystal displays have become the flat panel technology of choice for new cockpits as well as for retrofits of existing ones. Systems such as F-22, F-18, F-16, and C-141 have already begun extensive development efforts over the last few years. More recently, JPATS, AH-64, P-3, KC-135, T-45, and T-38 have announced plans to use AMLCDs also. Because of the advantages that AMLCDs have to offer, the list of platforms that will implement them will continue to grow over the next several years. The Displays Branch in Wright Laboratory is continually analyzing current as well as potential programs. An update on this analysis program is presented.

Honeywell provides both the primary flight instruments (EFIS and EICAS) and the FMS control and display unit (CDU) for the Boeing 777 all-glass flightdeck. In addition, the primary flight instruments are used on the new 737 scheduled to certify in 1997. These instruments feature high resolution, full color, active matrix, liquid crystal display panels. They also feature grayscale, very wide horizontal and vertical viewing angles, high contrast with an achromatic background over viewing angle, a large color gamut, temperature compensation for graylevel stability at all operating temperatures, heaters for cold temperature start-up and 100 fL brightness with a 2000:1 dimming range. This paper provides an update on the experiences gained from the use of these instruments on the flight-deck.

In early 1994, Loral Federal Systems Owego (LFS-O) was awarded the MH-53J Interactive Defensive Avionics System/Multi-Mission Advanced Tactical Terminal (IDAS/MATT) upgrade program as prime contractor. The MH-53J is a USAF special operations helicopter providing infiltration and exfiltration mission capability in a low-slow manner. One element the upgrade was a new digital map system (DMS), which consists of a 2 GB digital memory unit (DMU), a digital map computer (DMC) and a 6' by 8' color multi-function display (CMFD). Although the original specification was written for a CRT, Loral determined that an active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) based solution would better achieve the mission goals. The display upgrade was not intended to be a development program, but LFS-O found that there were very few solutions available near term, and chose to develop the display in Owego, making it their first military AMLCD production program. The CMFD is based on a commercial liquid crystal display manufactured by Display Technologies Incorporated (DTI), a joint venture of IBM and Toshiba. In March of 1995, just nine months after the design started, LFS-O delivered the first CMFD for systems integration. In December 1995, LFS-O successfully completed the environmental qualification of the CMFD. The extensive testing unearthed several initial deficiencies in the thermal, vibration, humidity salt fog and EMI design. This paper discusses these challenges and how they were overcome to achieve compliance with the USAF requirements.

Image Quest Technologies has successfully developed a fine pitch interconnect bonding process for AMLCD flat panel displays. A design of experiments (DOE) technique was used to develop and optimize the process. A DOE experimental matrix was used to bond test units in tape automated bonding (TAB) to glass substrates. The bonding adhesive material was anisotropic conductive film (ACF). The DOE interconnect bonding process described in this paper exceeds quality requirements, and has proven to be robust in production.

A new flat type fluorescent lamp has been developed specifically to meet the demanding requirements of military LCD displays, and has demonstrated significantly improved packaging, efficiency, and uniformity, in comparison with conventional fluorescent tube as backlight source.